wk5_L_9&10. Learning: an introduction - Part 2 Flashcards
Learning that occurs from possible consequence of actions is described as?
Instrumental Learning or Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect is an example of which type of Learning?
Operant Conditioning - behaviours with satisfying effect stamped in, annoying behaviours stamped out
Who was the Pioneer of Behaviourism?
B.F Skinner (1904-1990) - consequence of behaviour determine probability of it happening again
Operant Conditioning occurs due to what?
A consequence of our actions
Thorndike’s Law of Effect rule is the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by what?
Follow by a pleasant or satisfying consequence
Skinner emphasised that what increases the likelihood of a response?
Reinforcement
Skinner emphasised what decreases probability of a response?
Punishment
Association between behavior & consequence is what type of conditioning?
Operant Conditioning
Learning through reinforcement (reward) & punishment is learning via what conditioning?
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning behaviour (responses) are?
Voluntary
In Operant Conditioning, behaviour is modified according to what?
Consequences
How is Operant Conditioning different to Classical Conditioning?
Contingency (future event/circumstance) in Classical Conditioning as food delivered independent of rats behavior by light switch going on
Rats behaviour causes food to appear in Operant Conditioning (consequence)
Example of Classical Conditioning in human may be?
Stimulus (HORN) paired with stimulus (AIR PUFF) = Eye Blink
Example of Operant Conditioning may be?
Stimulus (WHISTLE) = Key relationship between Response (SIT UP) & Reinforcer (FOOD)
Behaviour changes because of it’s Consequences - Law of what?
Effect - Thorndike
Rats & Pigeons were animals used in what?
B.F. Skinner’s Skinner Boxes
B. F. Skinner’s “Radical Behaviourism” theory states?
- Factor controlling behavior was consequence of that behaviour
- No need to hypothesise internal processes
- Only appropriate object of study is overt, observable behaviour
- Laws governing ‘Learning’ via operant conditioning were same for all organisms
What is the key feature of Behaviourism?
Reinforcement Contingencies
- Reinforcement must be meaningful
- Reinforcement must follow the behaviour
Positive contingency is when a response causes the ‘what’ of a stimulus?
Presentation
Negative contingency is when response causes ‘what’ of a stimulus?
Removal
The relationships between a response & a consequence are called ‘what’ relationships?
Contingent Relationships
Reinforcement - any contingent relationship between a consequence & a response that causes the response to ‘what’ in frequency?
Increase
Punishment - any contingent relationship between a consequence & a response that causes the response to ‘what’ in frequency?
Decrease
What are the 4 types of Behaviour-Consequence Relationships in Operant Conditioning?
- POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT (behaviour frequency increases) E.G. chocolate bar is the stimulus added
- POSITIVE PUNISHMENT (behaviour decrease in frequency) E.G. flood added as stimulus which damages car therefore car written off
- NEGAVTIVE PUNISHMENT (behaviour decrease in frequency) E.G. getting a fine so you lose money, which is the removed stimulus. Negative punishment reduces likelihood you will do it again
- NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT (behaviour increase in frequency) E.G relief as the removal or absence of a stimulus as in something not happening. The relief is the negative reinforcement here
Giving a chocolate bar which produces joy is ‘what’ reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement. Pleasant stimulus presented after behaviour = more likely behaviour will happen again
Giving Panadol to ease a headache is an example of ‘what’ reinforcement?
Negative Reinforcement. Removal of aversive stimulus (headache) after a behaviour = more likely to occur (take Panadol) in future
Reinforcement is NICE
Negative means REMOVAL
Baby’s view as opposed to Mother’s view as an example of Contrasting Positive & Negative Reinforcement
BABY - wakes hungry > cries then gets bottle = positive reinforcement
MOTHER - hears crying (aversive stimulus) > gives bottle (response) > crying stops = negative reinforcement
Positive reinforcement - adding stimulus (bottle)
Negative reinforcement - taking away stimulus (crying)
Presenting an aversive stimulus after a behaviour reduces likelihood of repeated behaviour. This is ‘what’ punishment?
Positive Punishment. Stimulus added. E.G. Hair wand (stimulus) burnt person so less likely to repeat
Removal of a pleasant stimulus after behaviour reduces likelihood behaviour occurring in future. This is a ‘what’ punishment?
Negative punishment. E.G. Speeding > license lost (stimulus removed) = less likely to speed again
Positive Punishment is when you?
Add something unpleasant! E.G. Bart writing lines
Negative Punishment is when you?
Remove something desirable. E.G. Take away Bart’s skateboard
The Discriminative Stimuli is about knowing?
When to respond
Acquiring Complex Behaviours, E.G. training dog to fetch paper, is a procedure called?
Shaping
Variables that affect Operant Conditioning - both Reinforcers & Punishers
- REINFORCER MAGNITUDE: Larger reward = faster learning. Quality of reinforcer (reward) is important. Reward has to be of certain value
- DELAY of REWARD: longer the delay between behaviour & reward, lower the rate of learning
- FREQUENCY of REINFORCEMENT: when learning a ‘new’ response, response must always be rewarded
FREQUENCY of REINFORCEMENT; Reinforcement Contingencies - Timing & Schedules
- Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing desired response each time it occurs. Problems can be Habituation - reward loses it’s reinforcing qualities OR Satiation - appetite for the reward is at it’s maximum
- Intermittent reinforcement: periodic administration of the reinforcement
- Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: a) maintains behaviours with fewer reinforcement trials, b) reinforcing response only part of the time, c) results in slower acquisition d) greater resistance to extinction
Schedules of Reinforcement are?
FIXED RATIO & VARIABLE RATIO Schedules
(FR) Fixed Ratio Schedules…
- Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
- Faster you respond, the more rewards you get
- Different ratios
- Very high response rate
(VR) Variable Ratio Schedules…
- Reinforce response after unpredictable number of responses
- Average ratios
- Playing poker machines as example
- Very hard to extinguish due to unpredictability
Interval Schedules are based on what?
The amount of time between reinforcements
(FI) Fixed Interval Schedules…
- Reinforces response only after specified amount of time has elapsed
- Response occurs more frequently as anticipated time for reward draws near. E.G. receiving paycheck every two weeks
(VI) Variable Interval Schedules…
- Reinforces response at unpredictable time intervals
- Produces slow, steady responding. E.G. checking emails at random times, waiting for a wave, buying fuel on a cheaper day
Schedules of Reinforcement dictate typical response patterns
Each type of reinforcement tends to generate a characteristic pattern of responding
What may be an example of a FR schedule?
Coffee card stamped every purchase & every 9th coffee free - Fixed Ratio
What may be an example of a VR schedule?
Gambling on scratch cards - Variable Ratio
What may be an example of a FI schedule?
Cinema tickets cheaper every Tuesday - Fixed Interval
What may be an example of a VI schedule?
Petrol prices change on potentially a daily basis - Variable Interval
Different type of Reinforcers - PRIMARY & SECONDARY
Primary Reinforcers: Food, water, sex (biological value)
Secondary Reinforcers (also Conditioned Reinforcers): Money, grades (acquire their power by a learned association with a primary reinforcer)
Also known as ‘Grandma’s Rule’, what is THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE?
Using a more-preferred activity to reinforce a less-preferred activity. E.G. If you eat your veggies, you will then get cake
Issues with PUNISHMENT!
- Doesn’t usually result in long term change - temporary effects
- Doesn’t promote better, alternative behaviour. E.G. Recidivism - people released from prison more likely to re-offend (should be focusing on rehabilitation instead)
- Punishment typically leads to escape behaviour
- Learner may learn to fear the administrator
- May not undo existing rewards for a behaviour - unless it’s delivered every time
- Punitive aggression may lead to modelling of aggression
- Learned helplessness - you feel like your behaviour is not connected to rewards in the world. i.e. ‘damned if you do, damned if you don’t’ - can lead to PTSD
Behavioural Therapy is an example of what type of Conditioning?
Operant Conditioning. Used in treating obesity, smoking, alcoholism, social anxiety, depression, delinquency & aggression (wide variety of everyday behavioural problems). Also; training dogs, autism therapy, etc
Biofeedback training involves?
As an example of Operant Conditioning in everyday life:
- internal bodily processes (like blood pressure or muscle tension) recorded
- info is amplified and reported back to patient via headphones, signal lights etc
- info helps person to control their bodily processes which aren’t normally under voluntary control
(most useful in relaxation therapy, relieving stress-related conditions)
Observational Learning; aka?
Social Learning, Vicarious Learning, Imitation, Modelling, Behavioural Contagion…. ultimately the copying of behaviour
Learning from others!
What are some examples of benefits of Observational Learning?
- adaptive to learn from others
- culture gets passed from one generation to the next
Besides true imitation, social learning results from other social phenomena. Which are?
- Social facilitation - one’s behaviour prompts similar of another
- Local or Stimulus enhancement - behaviour of one person directs attention of others to an object. E.G. someone staring at the sky > others look up at the sky OR seeing what someone else orders off restaurant menu > you order the same thing
- True imitation - imitation of novel behaviour pattern to achieve set goal that’s unusual or maybe improbable to have occurred by other means (i.e. spontaneously)
4 KEY factors in Observational Learning…
- Attention - observational learning requires attention. Students made to watch demo’s
- Retention - to learn, we need to note & remember directions & demo’s
- Reproduction - we need to be motivated and have motor skills necessary to imitate the instructions from teacher
- Reinforcement - more likely to repeat behaviour we are learning if it’s reinforced
Albert Bandura proposes we learn through?
Imitation or Modelling
Observational (or vicarious) Learning
(explains the speed with which kids learn. kids can learn without immediate performance of behaviour)
