wk4_L_7&8. Learning: Contiguity & Contingency of events (Classical Conditioning / Opponent Process Model Flashcards by Candace Densley

What is Classical Conditioning about?

Predicting future events

CS (Conditioned Stimulus);

prepares one for imminent event
sets up expectation for that event & elicits CR (Conditioned Response)

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For a CS to elicit a CR, it must?

not just a matter of close proximity
CS must predict imminent arrival of US (Unconditioned Stimulus)
cognitive element to Classical Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning only occurs when?

The animal has learned to set up expectation

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Conditioning is easier when the CS is familiar OR unfamiliar?

Unfamiliar (no pre-existing expectations)

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Example of cognitive elements in Classical Conditioning (when animal has learned to set up an expectation)

CS (bell) > Expectation (of food) > Salivation/tail wagging/looking for food/begging

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Contiguity Theory is when?

2 stimuli are presented together in time & associations between them are formed

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How does the CR form?

Contiguity Theory - two stimuli presented together in time

To form a CR, just put two stimuli together in time

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What was the proposed alternative theory of Classical Conditioning to Contiguity Theory?

Contingency Theory

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Contingency Theory is?

Contingency theory - CR develops when CS is able to predict occurrence of US
Contingency between CS & US. Contingency being the relationship between 2 events, one being contingent/a consequence of the other.
The occurrence of a future event is possible, given that one event has occurred, but not always certain. E.G. US may not always follow a CS - but CS can still elicit a CR
Relies heavily on predictability & expectation
When CS is presented, expectancy for US is formed, which fuels the CR

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Contingency (predictability) depends on?

Reliability of CS-US pairing. How often is CS followed by US?
Uniqueness of CS-US pairing. How often US happens without CS? What is probability of US occurring if no CS has occurred?

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With Contingency theory, the CS must?

Be able to predict the US

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What happens to contingency theory when CS is less than perfect predictor? What if 50% of the time it follows, but 50% of the time it doesn’t?

There would be no CR

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Contingency can also predict the ‘what’ of the US?

Absence

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Contingency is about probability. E________ Conditioning & I_________ Conditioning - likelihood of something occurring or not occurring…

Excitatory Conditioning - likelihood of something (food) occurring given that something else (bell) did
Inhibitory Conditioning - likelihood of something (food) NOT occurring given that something else (bell) did

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Effect of contingency on classical conditioning - also works in predicting absence of events…

What if shock is less likely when bell is sounded - then it would become a safety signal indicating lower prediction of shock

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Why didn’t the villagers come when the ‘Boy Cried Wolf?’

They didn’t believe him. The CS (wolf) did not predict the US (the wolf).

The boy crying wolf might even predict no wolf - inhibitory effect

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What affects the acquisition of the CR? (in addition to contiguity & contingency), factors that matter are?

SEQUENCE of CS-US presentation
STRENGTH of the US
NUMBER of CS-US pairings
RELIABILITY & UNIQUENESS of CS as a predictor of the US (contingency)
BELONGINGNESS of CS with US

Sequence (time) when CS and US are presented is important in how CR is formed. What are the four types of sequences?

Delayed Conditioning - CS first and overlaps with US coming on (CS predicts US. Large amounts of conditioning)
Trace Conditioning - gap between CS & US. (CS predicts US so long as gap not too large. Memory traces predict US)
Simultaneous Conditioning - CS & US come on and off at same time (CS doesn’t predict US very well)
Backward Conditioning - US before CS (CS cannot predict anything about the US)

What may be some other factors of the CR?

Strength of US - larger US value = greater the conditioning
Number of CS-US pairings - more often paired = greater the conditioning

OPPONENT PROCESS (Solomon & Corbit, 1974) is?

emotion arousing stimuli > emotional responses

‘the concept of habituation and sensitisation have been extended to emotions and motivated behaviour’

Emotional after-reaction is called?

Opponent-Process Theory

Emotional stimulus creates initial response that’s followed by an adaptation, then opposite response

In Opponent-Process Theory, with repeated exposure to the stimulus, what happens?

Change in pattern. Primary affective response (a-process) habituates. Then, the after reaction (b-process) strengthens

The Opponent-Process Theory is a what theory?

Homeostatic theory - assuming neurophysiological mechanisms involved in emotional behaviour serve to maintain emotional stability

What are some common characteristics of emotional reaction?

emotional reactions are biphasic; primary reaction followed by an opposite after-reaction
primary reaction gets weaker with repeated stimulus
after-reaction is strengthened

**Skydivers** (Solomon & Corbit, 1974), examining the fear & relief before and after the jumps…

* Beginners - extreme fear (stage A) with first jump, replaced by great relief (stage B) upon landing. With repeated jumps the fear decreases, and post jump pleasure increases. **HEDONIC-AFFECTIVE PHENOMENA** exhibiting opp-processes at work

When a dog is presented with an electric shock it's heart rate increases to a peak - decreases slightly - then stabilises at normal level. When shock is turned off it's heartrate plunges below normal level. Which theory may this be an example of?

Opponent-process theory of emotion 1. a-process (directly elicited by stimulus) 2. b-process (compensatory response to counteract the a-process) elicited to maintain homeostasis

Solomon & Corbit's (1978) Standard Pattern of Affective Dynamics graph:

After repeated stimulations - figure of dynamic of opponent-process system

Opponent Process Theory of Acquired Motivation - **a-process** & **b-process**

* **A-process = initial reaction**. Whether experience is pleasant or unpleasant, this is the sudden emotional reaction quick quickly reaches it's peak. Ends quickly once stimulus has gone * **B-process = after reaction**. Offset of the stimulus causes an emotional after reaction (sometimes opposite of initial reaction). Slower in onset and decay than a-process

**Fear** from jumping out of a plane is the ‘what’ process in opp-process theory of motivation?

A-process

**Landing safely \> euphoric** feeling after landing safely back on the ground after jumping out of a plane is the ‘what’ process in opp-process theory of acquired motivation?

B-process

**Opponent Processes** in action - an example of process of events may be?

Fear + Relief = Thrill (rollercoaster ride for e.g.) * Disturb homeostasis: a-process * Compensatory response: b-process * Back to baseline: set point * Observed response (state): a-process + b-process

Opponent processes & classical conditioning - the environmental cues become the?

CS (conditioned stimulus). CR is b-process. **Anticipatory starts earlier**

**A-process** is directly related to the presentation of what?

**Emotional stimulus**. If this is removed - process stops immediately

Once stimulus is removed in opponent-process theory of emotion, what happens to the b-process?

Slowly declines

With repeated presentation of the emotional event (skydiving for e.g.), what happens to the b-process?

Increases in strength & duration

What process theory accounts for drug addiction in humans?

_Opponent-process theory of emotion_. Drug effect = **net effect of a-process minus b-process** (Thrill seeking behaviours & addictions apply to this theory)

`(which room was drug administered - context)

Contextual cues, E.G. for soldiers & using heroin * stressed by war * built friendships with fellow soldiers who were heroin users * ended in soldiers being in an environment that had multiple stimuli driving them toward heroin use * when they returned to the U.S, they found themselves in completely different environment * now environment was devoid of stimuli that triggered use in first place * without stress, soldiers who were previously not users before war now found it easier to quit

What happens to a-process & b-process with regard to **drug tolerance**?

b-process gets stronger with repeated use in a specific context \> reduced effect \> need increased quantity to get high repeated experience with a drug results in less high (a-process)

What happens to a-process & b-process with regard to **drug withdrawal**?

repeated exposure to drug in specific context, b-process increase in strength & duration a-process ceases immediately, b-process declines slowly negative effects of b-process become extreme \> withdrawal

\*When a stimulus causes an affective state (A) which may be either positive or negative, an opposing process is set in motion acting to dampen the response & reduce intensity of state A

\*When a stimulus is removed, opponent process remains for a while causing state B which is opposite in effective tone to state A. (**affective contrast**)