Wk: 3 Crime and Deviance Flashcards
What is Deviance?
Norm- or rule-breaking behaviour
that is usually subject to negative social
sanctions
What are Sanctions?
Forms of control intended to encourage or enforce conformity to the rules or social norms that prevail within a society or social group. May be formal or informal.
Sanctions in a federal political system (i.e., Australia) can be problematic when some behaviours are criminalised in some
states but not others (e.g., prostitution)
What is Crime?
Behaviour that is forbidden and punishable by the law. What is crime is political as it is the state that defines criminality.
The state decides what type of sanction should be applied and sometimes this can be rather controversial
Why are nationwide statistics on crime
hard to establish?
- The dark figure of crime –
undetected and/or unreported
crime - Changing definitions of crime
- Changing resources of law and
order - The influence of discretionary
decisions within the criminal
justice system
What The Dark Figure of
Crime?
- Definition: The number of criminal acts that are not reported to the police and therefore do not appear in official recorded crime rates.
Why?
* Lack of detection: Your computer may have been hacked before and your home entered without you knowing.
* Lack of reporting: Property crime and crimes against the person including all violent crimes, excluding homicide,
tend to be underreported. Sexual assault is one of the least frequently reported crimes.
What is reported?
* Motor vehicle theft (95%)
* Break-in (72%)
Why don’t people report crime?
* Perception that prosecution is unlikely (e.g.,
sexual abuse)
* Intimidation by other parties including the
offender (e.g., child abuse)
* Perception of what has occurred as a private
matter (e.g., domestic violence)
* Crimes as individually lacking impact but
collectively damaging to society (e.g., fraud, tax
evasion and software piracy).
* The reporting authority does not always agree a crime has been committed due to a lack of evidence.
Are crime and deviance socially constructed?
Crime and deviance are socially constructed as
criminal justice statistics are the result of
social processes. Crime statistics are not a
direct reflection of what has truly occurred in
society.
Biological & Psychological theory on crime
Crime is the result of personality
or biochemical defect
* Deviant behaviour is characterised
as abnormal
* Bowlby (1946) argues that
deprivation of maternal love in
early childhood can result in the
development of psychopathic
personalities
Criticisms:
Determinism
* We have no choice but to partake in
criminal behaviour if we have a
particular personality trait or chemical
imbalance.
* Biological and psychological factors
tend to interact with the environment.
* You may be genetically predisposed
to psychopathy but you received
affection, care and were provided for
as a child but here you are, studying
1014HSV and wanting to work in
health.
Crime as narrowly defined/circular
understanding
* Crime is understood as innate to
individuals.
* If we ignore that social class, for
example, interacts with our
genetic predisposition then we
may as well conclude that
people of the lower class are
biologically (or psychologically)
more criminal.
Deviance as it relates to functionalism
Deviance (and crime) are the result of
not integrating into society and from
not attaching to mainstream culture.
- There are two main schools of
functionalism in regard to deviance:
traditionalists and anomie theorists.
Traditionalist view on deviance as it relates to functionalism
Deviance is not only normal by
serves a function in defining the
difference between what we
consider right and wrong.
The Function of Deviance
1. Crime and deviance serve a boundary maintenance function (social reactions are warnings)
2. Crime and deviance are an important source of social change (Deviance becomes normal)
3. Crime strengthens social solidarity through the reinforcement of collective sentiments (outrage strengthens social ties) – for e.g., the societal reaction to the murder of Hannah Clarke
The Function of Deviance according to Durkheim 1938
Excessively high levels of crime and deviance
indicate a weak culture wherein order and stability
are threatened
* A harmonious society means people have a firm
sense of their place within it – socially, morally
and psychologically.
* Anomie: A cultural condition described by
Durkheim in which morals and customary
constraints on behaviour were weak.
* High levels of crime indicate anomie and risk of
the breakdown of society
What is Anomie Theory (functionalism)?
Also known as strain theory as deviance results from tension between dysfunctional social arrangements thus straining relationships between different social groups and people(e.g., Indigenous and non- indigenous people)
Anomie is seen as the result of a discrepancy
between cultural goals and means of achievement.
For example, people are socialised into the American dream of excessive material success and the means to do so but not provided with those means
Cultural goal/expectation of
being a good citizen:
Mansions, fast cars, fashion,
technology – money to waste.
* Means to do so: Not provided
to all people equally
* Pressure to achieve these goals
leads to the usage of criminal
means.
* Merton calls this problem
structural dysfunction.
What is structural dysfunction?
Cultural expectation of being a good citizen is to have expensive things. Theres a pressure to achieve these goals that can lead to the usage of criminal means.
Merton coined this as structural dysfunction
What are criminal and non-criminal responses to anomie?
Conformity- Acceptance of society’s demands and a
lifetime engaged in a futile struggle to
achieve material success
Innovation- The creation of novel ways of achieving
material success, including criminal ones
Ritual - The superficial acceptance of society’s
goals but no genuine effort to achieve
them (e.g. bureaucrats blindly following
rules)
Retreat - The rejection of material success and little
effort to achieve it (Merton regarded
substance users as retreatists)
Rebellion - Resistance to both the goals and their
means of attainment, and efforts to
change the rules of engagement (Merton
regarded revolutionaries and eco-warriors
as rebels)
What is the Chicago school of thought?
A social ecological model of crime
* Crime and deviance is concentrated
geographical areas
* Focused on urban social processes with a
subcultural one that focused on the local
environment and the subjective experiences
of the deviant.
* Deviance is a result of rural environments
shifting to urban environments where controls
such as the family and church are lost.
* Industrialisation, urbanization and
immigration lessened social control facilitated
by the family, community and the Church.
* The challenging of traditional norms =
Deviance
What are some criticisms of the Chicago school of thought?
- Overemphasis on Social
Disorganisation: Limits focus on
criminal subcultures - Incomplete: Neither comprehensive or
thorough explanation for the causes of
crime. - Scientific terminology as misleading:
Social relationships are portrayed as
natural and thus inevitable. Does not
explain that differences of power can
explain social arrangements (e.g., the
effect of policy on low income and
high unemployment).
What is Social Control Theory?
- Crime explained in terms of an inverse
relationship between the strength or
weakness of social control and low or high
levels of crime. - A pure focus on socialisation in explaining
deviance. - Asks why people conform
- Norms and values lead to social control
- Social control limits deviance.
What are inner controls (social control theory)?
Values, commitments, relationships, beliefs – basically morals
What are outer controls (social control theory)?
The family, the police, the church – people who influence us
Social Control theorists?
Wilson and Herrnstein (1985)
The most developed account of social
control theory wherein crime can be
explained by:
* Biological influences: Most crimes are
committed by young men. To be a
young biological man predisposes
oneself to criminality.
* Psychological influences: Operant
conditioning (reward vs punishment
through sanctions) determines ‘bad’
behaviour
* Strength of conscience: Our conscience
interacts with the above. You may be
predisposed but have a conscience and
vice versa.
What are criticisms of social control theory?
- Individualistic – no discussion of
structural inequality and how it may
relate to crime - Ignores power – who defines what is
deviance isn’t considered - Conformity – it explains the behaviour
of identified deviants. White middle-
class and upper-class people commit
crime as well (for e.g., white collar
crime)
What is Right Realism?
Individuals are to be held accountable for their actions and the state must develop programs that punish, control and change their behaviour.
* Crime has increased due to a lack of
employment, poverty, male role model
absence and increased welfare provision thus
dependence.
* The response was to refocus on the family and
a realistic and matter-of-fact focus on crime.
* The focus of the right was to move from
explaining crime socially and instead
individually
What is zero-tolerance policing?
A form of crime control that does not distinguish between serious and minor crimes, on the grounds that this prevents the escalation of crime.
What are criticisms of Right Realism?
- Groups that need help become criminalized
(e.g., the poor) - What indicates community decline has been
found to be committed by otherwise
respectable citizens. - Increased expenditure on crime and
incarceration rates (e.g., The War on Drugs) - A decrease in civil liberties through youth
curfew, mandatory sentencing, and increased
surveillance and less focus on rehabilitation - Young people unfairly identified.
- Fails to address structure
Conflict Theory as it relates to crime and deviance
- An emphasis on the influence of social
class, power, and capitalism on crime. - Crime can be attributed to capitalism’s
promotion of self-interest over concern
for others due to its inherent
competitive nature, leading to wealth
and power inequality. - Consequently, some individuals resort
to criminal behavior. - Notably, laws are often tailored to favor
the wealthy, punishing impoverished
individuals who may resort to theft for
survival.
(picture of Trump in lecture slides)
Symbolic interactionalism as it relates to crime and deviance - Labelling theory.
Stigma: Socially constructed negative labels or judgment imposed on individuals or groups based on perceived deviant characteristics or behaviors, influencing their self-identity and
social interactionses can lead to:
The labelling process can lead to:
1) Self-fulfilling prophecy,
2) Deviant identity or
3) Deviant career
Australian crime patterns:
- The media is seen as the most
important source of information about
crime and has a substantive role in
creating perceptions of crime rates and
trends. - Crime is falling for many offences but
we generally don’t perceive this. - Little relationship between risk factors
and fear. older people have the highest
level of fear of crime but are the least
likely to be victimised. - Most common offences: Intent to cause
injury, illicit drug offences and theft. - Males are two to four times more likely
than females to be identified as offenders. - Young people are more likely to offend
than older people – especially juveniles.
‘The Advantaged’ when it comes to crime
- Property crime is more likely to be
committed by more educated (and
older) individuals. - Older individuals less likely to be
targeted by the police than younger
individuals. - Less likely to be caught
- Crime is less visible. For example:
inadequate workplace safety, tax
evasion, environmental crimes, cyber
crime, corruption and identity fraud
What is white-collar crime?
A general term that includes all
crimes committed by non-manual workers, from
administrators to company directors, political leaders and professional men and women.
What is Corporate crime: ?
Criminal acts committed by corporate executives and managers in the course of their employment. Intended to benefit the corporation and may also benefit the perpetrators
What is Environmental crime:?
Unauthorised or irresponsible acts negatively impacting people and their environments.
What is State crime:?
Crimes that involve the state acting
against its own citizens or the citizens of another state.
For e.g., corruption, false statements, and illegal
overthrowing of government.
Why do the advantaged mostly get away with crimes?
- Embarrassment: When corporations are
victims they don’t seek legal action - Invisibility: The only physical trace may be
a computer record (if that) - Legal complications: The law is based on
the guilt of individuals not corporations.
Legal response is heard under
administrative not criminal law. Also
difficult to find evidence of illegality due
to corporate globalization. - Corporations have immense resources to
contest - Lack of regulation and thus a lack of
deterrence
Young People as it relates to crime
- Juvenile: A legal term to describe
individuals who are under the age of
17 or 18 years, depending on the
jurisdiction. - Young people are more likely to be
proceeded against - Rates of offending have declined for
all major crimes except sexual
assault and illicit drug offences. - Declines have been greatest for theft.
- Sexual assault and illicit drugs
offences have increased.
What is Overrepresentation
of Juveniles?
This occurs when the frequency of a social
group, such as young people, in social
statistics is proportionally greater than their
number in the population
* Inexperience and greater likelihood of being
arrested
* More attention received from police
* Visible crimes (e.g., theft)
* Crime is committed in groups increases
likelihood of being caught and more than
one individual linked to the offence
* Crimes committed in own neighbourhood
increasing likehood of identification and
reporting.
What are Risk Factors For Offending in
Young People?
- coming from a low socioeconomic background
- using drugs or alcohol
- being reared in a single-parent family
- wagging school
- poor school performance
- experiencing parental neglect or rejection
- having parents who are involved in crime
What are gangs?
- A group of people who see themselves, and are seen by others, as a gang primarily
because of their illegal activities. - Can provide an environment that was previously missing where masculinity and feminity
are established and enacted. - Offer prestige to the disempowered as they are accessible and inexpensive.
- Mutual protection in environments of violence and uncertainty.
The alienation of people leads to conditions for the formation of gangs:
* Absence of familial social bonds
* Exclusion from the workforce
* Poverty and disadvantage
* Everyday racism
* Persistent insecurity
= Social and economic exclusion
Crime in women?
- Women commit fewer crimes than men
- Rates of female offending are highest
for theft and related offences follow by
illicit drug offences - Rates of male offending are highest for
illicit drug offences and acts intending
to cause injury - Offending tends to be related to gender
roles - Sexuality: Prostitution
- Domestic labour: (shoplifting and
social security offences) - Primary caring (crimes against
children and illegal abortion) - Female offenders often face leniency
from police and courts. - Non-conforming women may
experience harsher treatment. - Indigenous women’s imprisonment
rate is 17 times higher than non-
Indigenous women and 12 times
higher than adult male Indigenous
prisoners (ABS, 2018a). - Aboriginal women fleeing domestic
violence may resort to offending due
to low income, discrimination, lack of
accommodation, and homelessness,
exacerbated by housing and service
issues
What are hate crimes?
Hate crimes: Acts of violence, abuse,
and harassment driven by bias against
a particular social minority.
- Motivated by hate, prejudice, and the
intent to intimidate an entire social
group, not just individuals.
- Frequently involve perpetrators and
victims who have prior familiarity
with each other.
- Primarily perpetrated by white,
working-class men, aiming to assert
masculine dominance and protect
their identity.
What about victims and gender?
- For violent crimes men are more likely than
women to be victims (62% in 2018)– rates
have declined for males in recent years. - Transgender individuals, including
transsexuals, are at a heightened risk of hate
crimes, discrimination, and violence due to
transphobia. - A substantive decline in the risk of assault
for young men from 2011 (30%) to 2013
from wherein it remained stable(25.4%) - Children form approx. 12% of homicides.
Violence against women?
- Women are at higher risk of being
victimized by a current or former male
partner within their homes. - A woman is killed by a partner
approximately every nine days
(Motivating factors include possessive
jealousy and control. - Separated women have the highest
rate of violent victimization compared
to other population groups. - Despite being recognized as an urgent
social issue in the media, politics, and
legal spheres, there has been limited
improvement.
Indigenous People and Crime
- Indigenous population overrepresented in
almost all offenses. - Represent 28% of adult prisoners High
youth incarceration rates; young Aboriginal
people 17 times more likely to be in
detention than other Australians (AIHW,
2019b). - Lateral violence, a harmful practice where
fear and anger from frequent experiences
of trauma, grief, and loss are internalized
and directed towards those closest to
them, contributes to this issue. - Overpolicing and past justice system
involvement are linked to
overrepresentation.
