Wk 11: Gender and Sexuality

Question 1

Understanding Gender:
3 Approaches

Answer 1

Biological determinism
Sociological determinism
A compromise position

Question 2

Biological determinism

Answer 2

Masculinity and femininity are regarded as the products or effects of sex-differentiated biological
characteristics

Question 3

Sociological determinism

Answer 3

Masculinity and femininity are seen as having nothing to do with biology at all. They are social products superimposed on a human body with no
distinctive characteristics of its own.

Question 4

A compromise position

Answer 4

Sexual identity is understood as resulting from some interaction between biology and social relations

Question 5

Sex

Answer 5

The biological dimensions of human
gender and sexual identity

Question 6

Gender

Answer 6

The social organisation of those
biological dimensions, generally into
something recognisable as masculinity or
femininity

Question 7

Sexuality

Answer 7

The sexual practices associated
with sex and gender, which are then
understood in terms of categories such as
heterosexuality, homosexuality,
bisexuality or queer sexuality.

They are different constructs, but they
are interlinked.

Question 8

Masculine/
Feminine

Answer 8

Gender is more about cultural or
psychological perceptions than
biology

Your physical traits don’t dictate your
ability to exhibit traditionally
masculine or feminine behaviours.
* A woman can exhibit masculine traits,
and a man can exhibit feminine ones.
* You can embody both masculine and
feminine qualities.
* The habit of connecting biology to
societal roles is influenced by
Western Christianity’s focus on nature
and what’s deemed natural

Question 9

Sociobiology and why
men and women differ

Answer 9

• Using Darwin’s theory, we can understand human behavior through natural selection.
• Gender differences may have evolved to enhance survival and gene transmission.
• These differences might stem from fundamental biological variations

Men produce many sperm throughout life, while women produce one egg per cycle and carry the fetus.
* Men are biologically driven to seek multiple mates.
* Women are biologically driven to nurture their young

• Men are more competitive, dominance-seeking, risk-taking and aggressive.
• Women tend towards caregiving, social bonding, empathy and communication skills.

Question 10

Criticisms of
Sociobiology

Answer 10

social learning plays a key role. Our social
and cultural surroundings influence
us

These views might stem from
gender stereotypes, which are often
based on assumptions rather than
truths

Question 11

Gender roles

Answer 11

Society’s expectations of how
males and females should act and think

Gender roles are affected by the media and culture
* There’s no inherent or fixed division of tasks based on gender. We tend to divide labour along gender lines cross-culturally.
* The diverse gender roles globally suggest biology
might not be the main driver of behaviour.
* Societies where women perform strenuous tasks
challenge the idea that biology solely dictates
gender roles.

Question 12

Natural difference theory

Answer 12

society is an additive to biology in explaining our gender roles

Gender as complementary can be explained
through natural difference theory (NDT)

Question 13

Gender Roles as per
NDT

Answer 13

Childbearing and early nurturing strengthen the
mother-child bond.
* The traditional family structure places child-rearing mainly on women.

• When fathers are absent, mothers often shoulder more child-related responsibilities.
• The Oedipus complex, by Freud, posits that young children develop feelings of attraction to the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, which eventually resolves as they identify with the same-sex parent.
• Males develop distinct roles by distancing from
  maternal traits and aligning with paternal
  characteristics, leading to a reluctance towards
  overt tenderness.
• Biology suggests that women are more
  predisposed to child-rearing tasks.

Question 14

Role theory identifies five aspects of male
and female gender identities

Answer 14

1. There’s a clear difference between an
   individual and their societal role.
2. Each role has associated behaviors.
3. Roles come with societal expectations.
4. Those in opposing roles mirror these
   expectations.
5. Roles are maintained through sanctions
   - rewards and penalties.

We act out gender and play our
gender roles
* We internalise gender through
acting them out
* We are socialised into gender

Question 15

Gender Identity and Role Theory
- Criticisms

Answer 15

Power Oversight
Choice Gap
Biological Assumption
Interaction Neglect
Norm Bias

Question 16

Power Oversight

Answer 16

Role theory sees masculinity and
femininity as complementary, missing potential
power imbalances. Could they be complementarity due to these power differences?

Question 17

Choice Gap:

Answer 17

The theory doesn’t fully explain why
we socialise people into certain roles or how roles
endure even when not reinforced (e.g., a
“masculine” raised daughter acting “feminine”)

Question 18

Biological Assumption

Answer 18

It implies that if gender roles exist, they originate from biological differences, neglecting the influence of society and culture

Question 19

Norm Bias

Answer 19

It leans towards what’s seen as
“normal”, portraying deviations as oddities instead
of recognising diversity.

Question 20

Interaction Neglect:

Answer 20

There’s minimal focus on how
gender practices and societal structures interact.

Question 21

Kinsey et al.’s Continuums of Sexual
Behaviour

Answer 21

• Developed throughout the 1960s and 1970s through taxonomy.
• Taxonomy: The science of naming, describing and classifying organisms of the world.
• Kinsey believed sexual identity was fluid, shaped by current activities and fantasies.
• He denied strict lines between heterosexual and
  homosexual individuals.
• He challenged the notion that sexual choices directly correlate with traits like masculinity/femininity or occupation.
• To Kinsey, “masculinity” and “femininity” were
  descriptors, not categories.
• He noted that many men (57%) and some women (28%) had attractions or experiences with both genders, suggesting no distinct homosexual or heterosexual groups.

Question 22

Three key features of Kinsey et al.’s approach

Answer 22

1. Sexual behaviours, including homosexuality
   and oral sex, are learned, not innate.
2. Kinsey believed societal morals clouded
   perceptions of actual sexual behaviour. He
   aimed to document sexual behaviour,
   detaching it from morality factually.
3. Kinsey studied erotic fantasies and activities,
   emphasising the importance of sexual
   imagery in identity. Even if one’s actions
   were heterosexual, same-sex fantasies could
   be significant for one’s identity.

Question 23

Kinsey et al.’s Continuums
of Sexual Behaviour -
Criticisms

Answer 23

• His approach overlooked the social
  meanings attached to sexual behaviour.
• Kinsey would record the
  physiological response to a sexual
  image but might not delve into the
  cultural or personal factors
  influencing that reaction.
• Kinsey viewed sexual behaviour as a
  result of learned conditions, neglecting
  the deeper psychological aspects of
  sexual identity formation.
• Kinsey saw peak sexual performance as the
  key to a healthy personality, promoting a
  focus on sexual achievements without
  deeply understanding the nuances
  between sexual and non-sexual aspects of
  life.
• Kinsey’s position suggested that sexuality
  could be regarded as the pursuit of largely
  physical pleasure detached from social
  concerns. However, ‘the sexual’ is a central
  organising principle of human life.
• E.g., sex is connected to family, religion, the
  economy and power,

Question 24

Gender stratification

Answer 24

Around the world, gender
is the primary division
between people

Question 25

Glass ceiling

Answer 25

an invisible barrier that prevents
certain individuals, often women and minorities,
from advancing to top leadership positions in a
workplace or industry, despite their qualifications
and achievements.

Question 26

Areas of Gender
Discrimination

Answer 26

Education
Politics
Pay
Health
Violence against women

Question 27

Patriarchy

Answer 27

Concept of men dominating
society - a social system in with the
father serves as the head of the family
and men have authority over women
and children

Question 28

Matriarchy

Answer 28

A social system in which
women are the true authority

Question 29

Sexism

Answer 29

The belief that one sex is
superior to the other

Question 30

Media: The Lolita Effect
The media sexualisation of young
girls:

Answer 30

1. Girls don’t choose boys. Boys
   choose girls, but only sexy ones
2. There’s only one kind of sexy –
   slender, curvy, white beauty
3. Girls should work to be that sexy
4. The younger a girl is, the sexier
   she is
5. Sexual violence can be attractive
   (Durham, 2008)

Question 31

Hegemonic male

Answer 31

at top of gender hierarchy – characterised by heterosexuality, marriage, authority, strength and paid work

• The hegemonic male rarely exist and is
  more so a prototype of masculinity that
  men strive for

All forms of femininities are formed in
subordination to hegemonic masculinity
HOWEVER “emphasised femininity”
complements “hegemonic masculinity”
(i.e., nurturance, empathy, and
compliance – demonstrated by sexual
receptivity in younger women and by
motherhood in older women)

Question 32

Toxic Masculinity

Answer 32

Defined: Toxic masculine practices that oppress other men, women, and sexually gender-diverse groups.

• Viewed as the cause of several societal issues:
  domestic abuse, health challenges, prejudice against LGBTQ+ communities, and
  aggression.
• Promoting positive masculinity involves
  educating males on accountability.

Question 33

Feminism

Answer 33

Defined: refers to the vast
collection of social
movements and theories
about gender differences

• Feminist thinkers believe
  that women are equal to
  men and deserve the same
  opportunities as men

Question 34

Feminism adopt 4 beliefs

Answer 34

1. Increasing equality in work and
   education
2. Expanding human choice for outcomes
3. Eliminating gender stratification
4. Ending sexual violence

Wave of feminism: A period of feminist activity,
thought, and focus. Each wave has distinct goals,
issues and challenges.

Question 35

First-Wave
Feminism

Answer 35

• Just over one century ago women did not have the right to vote, nor did they have the right to buy
  property in their own name, make legal contracts
  or serve on juries
• Primarily focused on legal inequalities
• Late 19th & early 20th Century
• Revolved around the women’s suffrage movement

Question 36

Second-Wave
Feminism

Answer 36

• Women’s liberation movement in the 1960’s
• While first-wave feminism protested legal
  inequality, second-wave feminism included
  equality in the workplace, equality in
  education and social independence from men
  – i.e., social equality.
• In addition, they demanded reproductive
  rights and protection from domestic and
  sexual violence
• A central challenge was the backlash against
  broader gender equality demands as they
  were seen as a threat to the family and
  societal norms.

Question 37

Third-Wave
Feminism

Answer 37

• Beginning in 1990’s, a third
  wave of feminism began
  emerging.
• Focus branched out to include multiple racial and socioeconomic groups (i.e, women of colour, women from third world countries) –
  i.e., diversity and…
• Intersectionality: How various social identities
  intersect and overlap, creating unique systems of
  oppression and privilege.
• Criticism of values that dominate society (i.e., that competition, toughness, independence, calloused ‘male’ qualities need to be replaced
  with cooperation, connection, openness, and
  interdependence)
• Increased focus on rape, domestic violence, female empowerment and sexual
  freedom
• The key challenge here was internal in ensuring the movement was inclusive of all
  women.

Question 38

Intersectionality

Answer 38

How various social identities
intersect and overlap,
creating unique systems of
oppression and privilege.

Question 39

Fourth-Wave
Feminism

Answer 39

• Activism has grown to online platforms.
• A developed focus on sexual harassment and assault.
• An emphasis on body autonomy, reproductive
  rights, and consent issues.
• Greater media representation of women.
• Continuing to address wage inequality.
• Addresses issues related to gender, sexual fluidity, and inclusion.
• The speed of online discourse makes nuanced, inclusive discussion challenging.
• Activists are exposed to online harassment.

Question 40

Liberal feminism

Answer 40

Focus on equality
and working within institutions to
gain equality (e.g., the right to vote,
equal protection under the law)

Question 41

Radical feminism:

Answer 41

Emphasises the need for dramatic social change to
achieve genuine equality for women (e.g., overthrow of capitalism, avoiding ‘traditional’
activities)

Question 42

Criticisms of
Feminism

Answer 42

• That it has focused too much on
  binaries between men and
  women (thus ignoring the
  complexities)
• It was created by (and to serve)
  the interests of white, middle-
  class, educated women from
  Western countries
• Feminism has created additional
  burdens for women (i.e.,
  opening up the world of paid
  employment but keeping women
  in the world of domestic service)

Question 43

Gay and Lesbian
Movements

Answer 43

Three key distinctions between the women’s
and gay liberation movements

Historical Visibility:
Internal Divisions:
Movement Goals:

Question 44

Historical Visibility:

Answer 44

Women’s liberation has roots in the
19th century, with women’s interests often voiced within existing organisations like churches. In contrast, homosexual interests only gained public prominence in the 1970s, with the movement being the main platform for
concerns.

Question 45

Internal Divisions:

Answer 45

Gay liberation has divided lesbians and
homosexual men. Lesbians, facing oppression both as women and as homosexuals, often prioritise women’s liberation, especially if they identify as feminists, over unity
within the gay movement.

Question 46

Movement Goals:

Answer 46

While women’s liberation seeks broader
societal transformation, the gay movement primarily desires societal acceptance and peace, focusing less on changing overall societal structures and behaviours

Question 47

Functionalism:
Gender

Answer 47

• Gender differences are essential in
  maintaining proper functioning of
  society. Parents socialise boys and girls
  for their future roles as father and
  mother
• Boys are taught to be confident, rational
  and competitive, because these
  characteristics are instrumental
  qualities for men to succeed
• Parents socialise girls with the primary
  goal of preparing them to raise children
  (i.e., nurturing qualities)
• These complementary roles assist in the
  smooth functioning of society

Question 48

Functionalism:
Sexuality

Answer 48

• Sexual behaviour is controlled by
  society to maintain social order.
• Heterosexuality is emphasised as
  normative through norms and values
  as it ensures procreation and reinforces
  the family.
• Placing boundaries on sexual
  behaviour (e.g., legally through
  marriage) is a measure against anomie.
• Heterosexuality is institutionalised (but
  less so over time in some societies).
• The gay rights movement has
  collectively challenged the status quo
  and the acceptance of heterosexuality
  as normative.

Question 49

Conflict Theory:
Gender

Answer 49

• Women are the first oppressed group
• In a capitalist society women,
  generally are at the bottom of the
  system, regardless of their job
• They also engage in unpaid, domestic
  tasks that maintain the status quo
• The work that women do can tend to
  be devalued.
• Women who work tend to earn less in
  the workforce than men, so this
  places women in a never-ending
  locked cycle that makes them
  submissive and subordinate to men

Question 50

Conflict Theory:
Sexuality

Answer 50

• Conflict in society is based on sexual orientation,
  favoring heterosexuals.
• Heterosexuals have a privileged position in
  society.
• Heterosexism views heterosexuality as the norm,
  leading to discrimination against homosexuals.
• Heterosexual privilege refers to advantages given
  due to heterosexuality.
  Example: More government benefits for
  married couples, including wrongful death suits,
  employment-based health benefits, and
  medical decision-making rights.
• Policies have tended to ignore LGBTQIA+ poverty.
• Such programs and policies neglect LGBTQIA+
  rights and needs.

Question 51

SI: Gender

Answer 51

• Individual definitions of gender
  develop from everyday interactions with others from the same and opposite sex
• The concept that we are “Doing
  Gender” (West & Zimmerman,
  1987)
• Men and women often follow scripted behaviour, acting in ways that are associated with
  their gender (i.e., men and women communicate differently)
• Individual interactions form meanings
  leading to patterns that establish and
  maintain social structures. E.g., you learn to
  occupy a masculine role and its connections
  to power, status, and dominance
  .
• A social role consists of practices and
  behaviors an individual adopts. Gender
  roles are much the same.
• Men = Resourcefulness?
• Women = Compassion, empathy and caring?
• Socialisation, or the interactions between
  individuals, is how they learn the
  expectations of their roles.
• Individuals identify with the roles they
  assume in society, and the perceptions
  others have of them become internalised.

Question 52

SI: Sexuality

Answer 52

• Interactionists study the social construction
  of sexual orientation.
• Heterosexuality is often seen as unchanging
  and universal.
• Jonathan Katz (2003) describes
  heterosexuality as a social invention from
  the late 19th and 20th centuries.
• Recognising heterosexuality as a social
  invention challenges its idealised power.
• “Coming out” symbolises individual rights
  and self-identification.
• It implies a positive attitude and
  commitment to the gay identity.
• Coming out merges private sexual identity
  with public social identity.