What Makes a Criminal? (1) Flashcards
How do the different areas and perspectives explain why people turn to crime?
Biological - differences in behaviour are a consequence of genetic, neurological or hormonal abnormality
Cognitive - differences in behaviour occur as a result of abnormal thinking (a fault in the cognitive process)
Developmental - differences in behaviour are a consequence of the way we are brought up and the way we interact during childhood
Behaviourist - behaviour learnt through classical conditioning, operant conditioning or social learning
Social - behaviour is a product of the aim to promote or maintain membership of social groups
Individual Differences - behaviour is a product of our unique personality so it is very hard to predict
Psychodynamic - behaviour a product of subconscious conflict between the id, ego and superego, and the use of defence mechanisms to manage that conflict
What is the relationship between hormones and criminal behaviour?
- cortisol and testosterone are the most researched hormones in relation to antisocial behaviour
- Glenn and Raine report that disrupted functioning of the hypothalamus and the release of cortisol is often seen in antisocial individuals and low levels of cortisol in childhood predict aggressive behaviour five years later in adolescence
- also report that increased testosterone levels have been associated with increased aggressive behaviour –> especially at the age of 16 (crime in adulthood)
What is the relationship between a low resting heart rate and criminal behaviour?
- Olivia Choy et al tested hypothesis that low resting heart rate explains the relationship between gender and crime
- used a sample of 894 participants from the Mauritius Child Health Project and measured heart rate at 11yrs of age alongside self-reported and official conviction records for overall criminal offending at age 23
- found resting heart rate accounted for 5-17% of gender differences in crimes such as violence or drugs
What is the relationship between genes and criminal behaviour?
- research including twin studies, studies of twins raised apart, and adoption studies has concluded that there is a significant genetic basis to antisocial and aggressive behaviour (Glenn and Raine suggest up to 60% influence)
- supports case study by Han Brunner et al that focused on five members of a Dutch family
- diagnosed with borderline mental retardation and showed violent behaviour including attempted rape and arson
What was the aim of Raine’s research?
- to identify areas of brain dysfunction in individuals charged with murder but not found guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI)
- expected to find localised dysfunction in specific regions of the brain linked to violence (e.g. pre frontal cortex) but not in other areas
What sample did Raine use?
- murderers (39 male, 2 female) who pleaded NGRI
- sent to the University of California for a PET scan to obtain evidence for their NGRI plea
- reasons for their NGRI plea included schizophrenia, head injuries, and psychoactive drug abuse
- NGRI murderers matched by age to a control group
- the six schizophrenic patients were matched with six schizophrenics who hadn’t committed any known crimes
- the rest of the control group were psychiatrically and medically healthy
What method did Raine use?
- quasi experiment as IV was naturally occurring (whether they were NGRIs or non murderers)
- matched pairs design (based on age, gender and six schizophrenics)
What procedure did Raine carry out?
- NGRIs kept medication free for two weeks before the study so they weren’t affected by it
- given a practise trial on the continuous performance task for 10mins (they had to detect target signals for 32mins, activating areas Raine believed would show different activity)
- started the actual CPT 30secs before receiving the injection of the radioactive tracker (flurodeoxyglucose) so that the initial novelty of the task wouldn’t show on the scan
- after completion, transferred to the PET scanner, where their heads were held still by moulds
- ten “slices” taken to show activity
What were the results of Raine’s study?
- **Pre frontal cortex **showed lower metabolic activity levels than the controls –> linked to low self control and altered emotional responses
- Corpus Callosum showed lower metabolic activity levels than the controls –> linked to thought coordination: may fail to prevent aggressive impulses from the right hemisphere being acted upon
- Amygdala, hippocampus and thalamus (limbic system) showed lower activity in the left than the right side of the brain –> thought to control emotional expression so may cause lack of inhibition for violent behaviour
What was the conclusion of Raine’s study?
- significant differences between brains of “normal” population and those who have committed murder (with NGRI pleas)
- this may explain their loss of self control, immaturity and inability to modify behaviour that lead to their crimes
- however, the study cannot show that these differences are the cause of criminal behaviour: other factors such as social experiences, situational factors, psychological predispositions and learned behaviours must also be accounted for
What is chemical castration and is it useful?
- treatment using drugs to suppress sexual impulses –> can be taken voluntarily or involuntarily
- depo-provera has reduced paedophile recidivism from 50% to 5%
- in this, antiandrogens block androgen receptors of the cells and prevents effects
- influences hypothalamus so pituitary gland is stimulated to release hormones that control sperm production, suppress erection, and inhibit the frequency of erotic thoughts
- 90% cost advantage over imprisonment but duration of effectiveness is usually only 1-3months
What is facial disfigurement and is it useful?
- Lombroso’s theory states criminality was inherited and those ‘born criminal’ could be identified by physical defects
- Lewiston conducted over 450 facial reconstructive surgeries in the prison populations
- selected prisoners who seemed to have most gain (few offences, no sex offenders etc)
- observed for 10yrs after surgery
- found recidivism levels significantly lower than rest of prison population (42% compared to 75%) and they were more likely to engage in intervention strategies whilst in prison
- however for small minority allowed them to diversify their criminal behaviour to be more subtle, confidence trick related crime
How can drug treatments be used as a strategy for crime prevention and is it useful?
Psychopharmacology: the study of the effects that drugs have on, for example, treating mental disorders
- drugs interact with particular receptors in the nervous system to induce changes in behaviour
- treatment of mental illnesses may be helpful in preventing associated criminal behaviour
- example is antipsychotics to treat schizophrenia: they are dopamine antagonists because they block dopamine by occupying postsynaptic receptor sites
- reduced dopamine activity means less activity in the mesolimbic pathway and therefore a decrease in positive symptoms
- can be prescribed to both juveniles and adults, although there is a risk of over-prescription
How can biosocial interventions be used as a strategy for crime prevention and is it useful?
- Raine suggested a range of biosocial risk factors including smoking during pregnancy and poor nutrition of the mother during pregnancy
- Olds studied 400 high risk mothers during pregnancy
- those in experimental group had 9 home visits from nurses during pregnancy and further 23 in first 2yrs of child’s life, giving advice about diet, nutrition etc
- child arrest rates were 52.8% lower than those in the control group, and conviction rates were 63% lower
- Raine also advised three part intervention programme that nurseries and after school clubs delivered: nutrition, physical exercise and cognitive stimulation
- found that by the age of 17, the children had significantly less anti-social behaviour compared to a control group who had poor nutrition
