Crime Prevention (5) Flashcards
What experiment did Oscar Newman conduct in the 1970s?
- became interested in why so many housing developments were “failing”
- conducted experiment comparing two similar social housing developments in New York, both with similar population densities but different layouts
- one high rise flats (van dyke) and other a series of walk up buildings (brownsville)
- set up smaller experiment within main experiment by playing a recording of people arguing loudly in a corridor
What was the difference between Brownsville and Van Dyke?
Brownsville:
- built around a courtyard with a common entrance easily visible from all flats
- strangers could be recognised and challenged
- small experiment: researchers were questioned before they could even set up the tape
Van Dyke:
- communal spaces dilapidated
- graffiti, vandalism and crime rates higher
- small experiments: residents closed/locked their doors and turned their TVs up
What reasons does Newman suggest for the differences between Brownsville and Van Dyke?
- suggests that because van dyke has a larger proportion of indefensible space (doesn’t belong to anyone in particular), people don’t feel directly responsible for them
- if spaces are used by a small number of people, they can become defensible, as they feel shared ownership of them
What are key features of defensible space?
Zone of Territorial Influence - fences or hedges should be used to indicate the border between public and private spaces
Opportunities for Surveillance - physical layout should allow intruders to be easily spotted, for instance by having windows overlooking entrances
Image - high rise buildings are similar and lack individuality or personalisation - individuality should be emphasised as it enhances feelings of privacy
milieu - buildings surrounded by courtyards and other more personal spaces attract less vandalism than those surrounded by public space
What are zero tolerance policies?
- policies where all types of crime, including seemingly minor crimes such as begging and fare dodging, are dealt with in the same way as serious offences
- pioneered by Bill Bratton
- idea is to prevent crime from escalating further in the area
- demonstrates police confidence and authority
What did Bill Bratton do when he became New York Police Commissioner in 1994?
- began to charge even the smallest crimes such as window washing at traffic lights then asking for money
- attempt to improve “quality of life”
- critics argue that this was not the cause, however serious crime fell by 25% by 1992 and continued to fall for a further 6yrs
What is evidence for the use of zero-tolerance policies?
- Dennis and Mallon (1997) trained police officers in Hartlepool
- officers asked to show understanding to those with mental health conditions and ignore “high spiritedness”
- told never to ignore anti-social behaviour and to address low level offenders face to face
- overall crime rates reduced by 27% over two years, with specific crime types dropping even more significantly (e.g. car theft by 56%)
- however, Pollard (1998) suggests short term benefits may not last, as such policies may encourage officers to be heavy handed and alienate communities
What was the aim of Wilson and Kelling’s article?
- to outline how features of neighbourhoods can influence crime rates, the changing role of the police in the US and strategies for maintaining order
- article can be viewed in three main sections: safe neighbourhoods, the role of the police and maintaining order
How do Wilson and Kelling suggest foot patrol officers can increase the safetly of neighbourhoods?
- Kelling describes his experiences of walking with Newark foot-patrol officers in run down areas
- officers knew whether people were ‘regulars’ or ‘strangers’
- he saw his job as keeping an eye on strangers and making certain that disreputable regulars observed some informal but widely understood rules
- people in Newark appeared to feel reassured when the policy helped them maintain that order and it reduced their fear of crime
What was Wilson and Kelling’s broken windows theory?
- if a window is broken and left unrepaired, all the rest of the windows will soon be broken
- neglected property becomes a target for disorder even for people who normally wouldn’t do such things
- where people do not care for their property there is a breakdown of community controls and soon the neighbourhood can turn inhospitable
- as a result, residents will think crime is on the rise, keep off the streets and wish to move away, further encouraging more crime
How do Wilson and Kelling suggest changing the role of the police can increase the safetly of neighbourhoods?
- believed that in the 20yrs up to the 1980s, the role of policing changed so that they were detecting and aprehending criminals rather than maintaining order
- society wanted police to have legal tools to remove undesirable people from neighbourhoods when informal efforts to preserve order failed
- this means society has to decide what constitutes an undesirable person and what behaviours should be criminalised
- Wilson and Kelling believe decriminalising disrepubtable behaviour that ‘harms no one’ is a mistake because it removes the ultimate sanction that the police have in maintaining neighbourhood order
- links back to the broken window theory: one case undealt with will cause many more
How do Wilson and Kelling suggest order should be maintained?
- police forces in America are suffering substantial cuts in the no. of officers available for duty and some neighbourhoods are so crime ridden that foot patrols are useless
- W+K believe the key objective should be to identify neighbourhoods at the tipping point where public order is deteriorating but not unreclaimable
- unfortunately, few police departments systematically identify areas that need officers assigning to them
How can neighbourhood watch schemes help prevent crime?
- first neighbourhood watch scheme set up in New York after murder of Kitty Genovese
- started in the UK in Cheshire in 1982
- associations work under general guidance of the neighbourhood and home watch (NHW) network alongside police
- effective because acts as a deterrent to offenders by increasing their awareness that locals will be looking for and reporting suspicious behaviour
- Bennett et al: it facilitates the flow of intelligence between the public and the police which helps prevent crime
What are the key principles of pulling levers policing?
- deterrence theory: suggests crimes can be prevented when the offender perceives that the costs of committing the crime outweigh the benefits
- general deterrence: idea that the general population is dissuaded from committing crime when they understand that a punishment will follow
