Wetlands

Question 1

Wetlands

Answer 1

1. are transition zones (ecotone) between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
2. According to the Ramsar Convention, they are areas with water such as marshes, peat bogs, and shallow marine zones, that can be either natural/artificial, permanent/ temporary, and may have fresh, brackish, or salty water.

Question 2

Estuaries

Answer 2

An estuary is a coastal area where freshwater from rivers or streams meets and mixes with saltwater from the ocean.
Most productive wetlands in the world. Act as a barrier for the coastal habitat. They also absorb, trap and detoxify pollutants. About 60% of the world’s population lives along estuaries and the coast. Ideal locations for the construction of ports and harbours.

Question 3

A lagoon

Answer 3

A lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water, typically an ocean or sea, by a barrier such as a sandbar, coral reef, or island. Backwaters in Kerala, Chilika Lake in Odisha

Question 4

Estuarine Vegetation

Answer 4

dynamic productive ecosystems. Those capable of osmoregulation survive. Habitats, such as mangroves, salt marshes, seagrass, mudflats etc.
Plants and animals, such as wood storks, pelicans, coniferous and deciduous trees, and butterflies. Aquatic plants and animals like sea turtles, sea lions, sea catfish, salt grasses, seagrass, bulrush, etc. The estuarine phytoplankton are diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, and blue-green algae

Question 5

Indian Estuarine Ecosystem

Answer 5

India’s major estuaries occur on the east coast. Locations of some major seaports. E.g., Mormugao Port on the Zuari Estuary.

Question 6

Mangroves and their adaptations

Answer 6

Mangroves: Salt-tolerant evergreen shrubs/trees (8-20m), grow below high-water spring tides in tropical/subtropical regions. Key adaptations:
1. Succulent leaves (store water, reduce evapotranspiration)
2. Sunken stomata (protect from drying winds)
3. Salt-secreting glands (flush out excess salt)
4. Pneumatophores (aerial breathing roots)
5. Vivipary (seeds/embryos develop before detachment)
6. Stilt, buttress, prop roots (fibrous support roots)

Question 7

Mangroves in India

Answer 7

Range from bushy stands of dwarf mangroves found in the Gulf of Kutch to taller stands found in the Sundarbans. Also on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Question 8

Mangroves of Sundarbans

Answer 8

Sundarbans: Largest tidal mangrove block, named after Sundari mangrove tree, only mangrove forest with tigers (400+ tigers, 88 in India). Major fauna: Royal Bengal tiger (EN), saltwater crocodile (LC), river terrapin, olive ridley turtle (VU), Ganges river dolphin (EN), hawksbill turtle, mangrove horseshoe crab.

Question 9

Other major Mangrove Forests on the East Coast

Answer 9

Bhitarkanika (Orissa): 2nd largest mangrove area in India, high genetic diversity, covers Brahmani and Baitarani river deltas.
Godavari-Krishna delta (AP)
Pichavaram & Vedaranyam: Degraded due to aquaculture ponds and salt pans.

Question 10

Mangrove Forests on the West Coast

Answer 10

Mangroves in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka: Scrubby, stunted, degraded, found in intertidal estuaries and creeks.
Kerala: Sparse, thin vegetation.
Gujarat: Mangroves mainly in Gulf of Kutch and Kori creek (Indus River paleo delta).

Question 11

Kharai camels

Answer 11

India’s Kharai (swimming) camels depend on Kutch mangroves for food (8 months), vital to Jat, Rabari, and Maldhari communities; alongside Kankrej and Banni buffaloes, they have developed tolerant livestock breeds.

Question 12

Global Status of Mangrove Cover

Answer 12

The total mangrove area is 15 million hectares, with the largest area in Southeast Asia, followed by Africa, the Americas, and Oceania; top countries include Indonesia, Brazil, Nigeria, and Mexico, while India’s mangrove cover is 5,000 sq km (0.15% of total area).

Question 13

Why are mangroves not found beyond subtropics?

Answer 13

Mangrove vegetation contains a complex salt filtration system that facilitates high water loss at the root level itself to cope with the brackish conditions. These adaptive mechanisms are energy-intensive and require high solar radiation.

Question 14

Areas with highest productivity

Answer 14

1. Ecotones (estuaries, grasslands): Higher productivity than surrounding ecosystems
2. Tropical rainforests, coral reefs: Exception, high productivity like wetlands due to rich primary producers
3. Oceans: Deep, limited productivity to surface, nutrient-poor (except near shore). Cold/warm current mixing zones: Higher productivity
4. Desert ecosystems: Very low productivity, lower than oceans
5. Lakes: Low productivity like oceans, slightly higher due to photic zone plants

Question 15

Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2010

Answer 15

1. The MoEF has notified legally enforceable rules under the EPA, 1986 to prevent wetland degradation.
2. Central Wetland Regulatory Authority (CWRA)
3. Wetland classification
4. Prohibited activities: Industrialization, permanent construction, waste dumping. Central Government can permit prohibited activities in protected wetlands on CWRA’s recommendation.
5. Permitted activities: Aquaculture, agriculture, resource harvesting, dredging with prior approval.

Question 15

National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA)

Answer 15

1. Integrated conservation: Aquatic ecosystems (lakes, wetlands)
2. MoEF: Implements Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) 70:30 (90:10 for NE)
3. Assistance: Financial, technical to State/UT governments. Management: State/UTs control land resources, manage ecosystems
4. Criteria: Wetlands of national importance per Ramsar Convention
5. NPCA: Formed by merging the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCA) and National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP).

Question 15

Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2017

Answer 15

1. replace the 2010 version, decentralizing management by giving states/UTs the power to identify, notify, and monitor wetlands and prohibited activities.
2. National Wetland Committee (NWC): Advisory body, oversees Ramsar site progress, nodal body for the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA)- promotes the wise-use principle.
3. SWA of the state/UT must identify and notify the wetlands for protection within the stipulated time and make list of activities to be regulated and permitted. Includes digital inventory.

Question 16

What Cannot be notified as wetlands:

Answer 16

River channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies, aquaculture, salt production, recreation, irrigation projects, and areas under Indian Forest Act, Wildlife Protection Act, Forest Conservation Act, and Coastal Regulation Zone.

Question 16

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

Answer 16

The Ramsar Convention (1971) aims for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. Signed on 2nd February (World Wetlands Day) in Ramsar, Iran, with 172 parties; India joined in 1982.
Core philosophy: “Wise use” — maintaining ecological character for sustainable development.

Question 17

Criteria for Wetland Identification:

Answer 17

Unique wetland: Rare or unique natural/near-natural type
Endangered species: Supports threatened or endangered species/communities
Essential species: Supports key species for biodiversity
Species protection: Critical life stages/refuge for species
Waterbirds: Supports 20,000+ waterbirds regularly
Single species of waterbirds: Supports 1% of a species’ population
Indigenous fish: Supports significant indigenous fish subspecies
Multirole: Food source, spawning ground, nursery, migration path
Ecotourism: Essential for food, water, recreation, and ecotourism.

Question 18

Contracting Parties (COP) to Ramsar Convention

Answer 18

The COP is the policy-making body of the Ramsar Convention, meeting every three years.
COP13: Held in Dubai (2018)
COP14: Held in 2022 in a hybrid format (Wuhan, China and Geneva, Switzerland). Adoption of the Wuhan Declaration and 2025-2030 Global Strategic Framework for Wetlands Conservation.

Question 19

The Responsibilities of the Contracting Parties

Answer 19

Contracting Parties must identify and designate wetlands of international importance.
Parties are expected (not mandated) to manage Ramsar Sites to preserve ecological character and essential functions for future generations.

Question 20

International Organisation Partners and Other Partners

Answer 20

Ramsar Convention works closely with six organisations known as International Organisation Partners (IOPs):
1. Birdlife International
2. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
3. International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
4. Wetlands International
5. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
6. International Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
Others
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
UN agencies such as UNEP, UNDP, etc.

Question 21

Wetlands International

Answer 21

is a global non-governmental organisation (NGO) that works to sustain and restore wetlands

Question 22

Montreux Record

Answer 22

A list of Ramsar Sites at risk due to technological developments, pollution, or other human interference, where ecological character changes have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur.

Question 22

Ramsar sites

Answer 22

Countries must designate at least one Wetland of International Importance upon accession.
First Ramsar site: Cobourg Peninsula, Australia (1974).
Most Ramsar Sites: United Kingdom (175), Mexico (142).
Largest area: Bolivia has the largest Ramsar-protected area.
A Contracting Party may delete or restrict a Ramsar Site due to urgent national interest, but must compensate by creating additional reserves nearby. No site has ever been fully deleted.