Western Front Medicine (1914-1918) Flashcards
1
Q
Where was the western front?
A
The Western Front was the area in Belgium and France where the Allies fought the German Imperial Army from 1914 to 1918.
2
Q
What did the Geneva Protocol ban in 1925?
A
The Geneva Protocol banned mustard gas in 1925.
3
Q
What was the dugout?
A
The dugout was an area dug into the side of a trench, where men could take protective cover. In addition, soldiers could eat and sleep in the dugout.
RAP stations were sometimes in dugouts.
4
Q
Why were trenches dug in zig-zag patterns?
A
Trenches were dug in zig-zags to stop enemies from shooting straight down them.
5
Q
What did the duckboards do?
A
The duckboard drained soldiers feet to prevent diseases such as trench foot.
6
Q
What did parapets do?
A
Parapets were filled with sand to shield enemy fire.
7
Q
What did the firestep do?
A
The firestep allows the soldiers to fire towards the other trench.
Trenches were 2.5m deep and this step gave them extra height.
8
Q
What was the ammunitions shelf?
A
The ammunition shelf was an area in which ammo was kept near the firestep.
9
Q
What were the 4 types of trench?
A
There were 4 types of trenches: Front line, support, communication and reserve trenches
10
Q
What was the communication trench?
A
The communications trench ran through the other trenches.
11
Q
Describe the reserve trench
A
The reserve trench was at least 100 metres behind the support trench and was where reserve troops could be mobilised for a counter-attack if the frontline trench was captured by the enemy.
12
Q
What was the frontline trench?
A
The frontline trench was where attacks would be made from.
The ‘fire trench’ (frontline trench) was the most unpleasant and dangerous trench, with machine guns and barbed wire.
13
Q
Describe the support trench
A
The support trench was about 80 metres behind the frontline trench and the troops would retreat there if the frontline trench came under attack.
At the very rear were artillery emplacements.
Holes were dug into the side of the trenches where the men could take cover when needed. These were known as the dugouts.
14
Q
Why were German trenches better than British trenches?
A
German trenches were better than British trenches because the British thought they were only going to be temporary but the Germans predicted a stalemate so they spent more time on their trenches.
15
Q
Give one advantage of the trench system
A
Advantages:
Simple to make and cheap to build
Easy to defend with few men using barbed wire, artillery, etc
16
Q
Give one disadvantage of the trench system
A
Disadvantages:
Hard to attack as the soldiers had to cross no mans land (the area between the two trenches) which had been destroyed by shell fire and was a mass of mud and craters.
Trenches were very dirty and unhygenic as there was no running water or flushing toilets.
17
Q
What were the three ways of building trenches?
A
The three ways of building trenches:
Entrenching
Sapping
Tunnelling
18
Q
What was entrenching?
A
Entrenching involved many soldiers standing in a line and digging.
19
Q
What was sapping?
A
Sapping involved 1 man digging outwards from the end of the trench.
20
Q
What was tunnelling?
A
Tunnelling was similar to sapping. One man dug outwards from the end of the trench, but a layer of earth was left along the top of the trench until it was completed.
21
Q
What was the ideal trench depth?
A
The ideal trench depth was 6 feet
22
Q
Who first dug trenches? Where?
A
Trenches were first dug by the British and French Armies in Northern France in 1914.
23
Q
What was the aim of trenches, originally?
A
The aim of trenches was to act as a barrier to stop the rapid advance of the German army.
24
Q
Why would trenches need to be constantly repaired?
A
Trenches would need to be constantly repaired due to the weather and constant bombing.
25
How did the way trenches were built change?
At first, trenches were temporary and built quickly using sandbags and shovels in existing ditches.
As the war went on, trenches became part of the 'stalemate, used to defend and launch attacks.
Trenches became more complex with bunkers, drainage, hospitals and accomodation.
Trenches also became more dangerous with machine guns, concrete bunkers and barbed wire used as defenses.
26
Give 3 problems of trenches, in the summer
Problems in the summer:
Hot (which could cause soldiers to overheat, faint, get heatstroke)
Very uncomfortable
Sweating
Sun in soldiers eyes
Sewage
Smell
Dead bodies
Rat infestation
27
Give 3 problems of trenches, in the winter
Problems in the winter:
Soldiers could get trench foot from all the water
Get a fever
Flooding trenches
Poor hygiene
Bad weather
Rat infestation
28
What was trench foot?
Trench foot was the painful swelling of the feet, caused by standing in cold water and mud.
29
How did soldiers attempt to solve trench foot?
Prevention was key.
Soldiers rubbed whale oil into their feet to protect them.
Keeping feet dry and regularly changing socks helped too.
Soldiers had another person check their foot for trenchfoot. They would then check that person's foot.
30
What was gangrene?
Second stage trench foot: Gangrene.
Body tissue decomposes due to lack of blood to the body tissue.
31
How was gangrene solved?
If gangrene developed, then amputation was the only solution.
32
What was trench fever?
Flu-like symptoms: High temperature, headache, and aching muscles.
500,000 men were affected with this illness.
Trench fever was caused by lice.
33
How did soldiers attempt to solve trench fever?
By 1918, the cause was linked to lice.
Delousing stations were set up, which resulted in a decline in cases of trench fever.
34
What was shellshock?
Shellshock: Symptoms: Tiredness, headaches, nightmares, loss of speech, uncontrollable shaking and mental breakdowns.
It is estimated that 80,000 men experienced shellshock.
(This was closest to modern day PTSD)
35
How did they attempt to solve shellshock?
The condition was not understood at the time.
Craiglockhart Hospital treated 2,000 men.
However, some men were accused of cowardice.
They were punished for this, some were even shot.
36
When did Britain declare war on Germany? Why did they do this?
Britain declared war on Germany on August 4th 1914 when Germany invaded France through Belgium.
37
Who did the British government send to northern France at the start of the war? What was their aim?
The British government sent the BEF (British Expeditionary Force) to northern France to try and stop the German advance.
38
By the end of 1914, what happened to most of Belgium and northern France?
By the end of 1914, much of Belgium and northern France had been occupied by the Germans.
39
When did trench warfare begin?
Trench warfare began when both the British and Germans pulled back their forces
40
What type was most of the fighting, between 1914 and 1918?
Between 1914 and 1918, most of the fighting done on the Western Front (France/Belgium) was trench warfare.
41
What does the British sector include?
The British sector includes the strategic areas of Ypres, Arras, Albert and the River Somme and many of the largest battles in the war were fought in this sector.
42
Give two medical impacts of World War One
The medical impact of WW1:
There were 2.7 million casualties in the British sector of the Western Front during the war
1/4 (700,000) of these casualties were not seen by medical services because they were killed/prisoners.
The remaining 2 million were treated by medical services in France or back in England.
Of those treated, 5.6% (150,000) died from their wounds.
Therefore the vast majority of those treated survived their wounds and illnesses: a testament to the successes of the medical care during WW1 (of course, many of these might be killed later in fighting).
43
What percentage of wounds were bullets responsible for?
Bullets were responsible for 39% of wounds.
44
What percentage of shells injured soldier's arms and legs?
60% of injuries from shells, were to the soldier's arms and legs.
45
What percentage of wounds were high explosive shells and shrapnel responsible for?
High explosive shells and shrapnel was responsible for 58% of wounds.
46
If not fully removed, what would shrapnel or bullets cause?
If not fully removed, shrapnel or bullets would cause infection
47
What did the soil the men were fighting on, contain? Why was this a problem?
The soil where the men were fighting was old farmland.
It contained fertiliser which caused bacteria.
This bacteria caused tetanus and gangrene.
48
How fast could gas gangrene kill someone?
Gas gangrene could kill a person within a day
49
At the start of the war, what did soldiers wear on their heads?
At the start of the war, soldiers only wore a soft cap on their heads.
50
By 1915, what were soldiers wearing on their heads?
By 1915, soldiers were wearing Brodie helmets on their heads
51
By what percentage did the Brodie helmet reduce fatal head wounds?
It is estimated that the Brodie helmet reduced fatal head wounds by 80%.
52
How many British soldiers died from gas attacks?
There was only about 6,000 British soldiers who died as a result of gas attacks
53
What masks did the British army give troops in 1915?
In 1915, the British army gave troops gas masks, which became more sophisticated over time
54
When was chlorine gas first used? By who?
Chlorine gas was first used by the Germans in 1915 at the 2nd Battle of Ypres.
55
Before gas masks, what did soldiers do to stop gas getting into their lungs?
Before gas masks were introduced, soldiers soaked cotton pads with urine and pressed them to their faces to stop the gas getting into their lungs.
56
The British retaliated with Chlorine gas at the Battle of Loos. What went wrong?
The British retaliated with Chlorine gas at the Battle of Loos, but the wind changed direction and the gas blew back on the British lines.
57
When was phosgene gas first used? Where?
Phosgene gas was first used at the end of 1915 near Ypres.
58
What were the effects of phosgene gas? How long did it take to kill someone?
Phosgene gas had similar effects to chlorine gas but killed faster - within two days
59
When was mustard gas first used? By who?
Mustard gas was first used by the Germans in 1917.
60
Give one feature of mustard gas
It was an odourless gas
It killed within 12 hours
Caused internal and external blisters
Passed through clothing and burned the skin
61
How long did it take mustard gas to kill someone?
Mustard gas killed within 12 hours
62
Roads were bombed, and there were craters in the roads. What effect did this have on ambulance drivers and injured soldiers?
Roads were bombed, so ambulance drivers cannot drive on it.
Constant shelling creates craters, destroying roads.
Because the roads can't be used, soldiers could die or cuts could get infected from the wait.
63
Most fights were on farmers fields, which uses fertiliser. Why was this a problem?
Fertiliser contained bacteria and could infect wounds or burn skin
64
Mud was everywhere. What effect would this have on stretcher bearers?
Mud was everywhere and massively slowed down stretcher bearers.
Stretcher bearers were also exposed to the shellfire, which could turn 100 casualties into 900.
As they needed 8 people to carry 1 person, due to the mud.
65
Men were often shaken about on horse-drawn carriages. Why was this a problem?
Men were often shaken about on horse-drawn carriages, this led to injuries getting worse.
66
How many people could horse-drawn carriages carry? Why was this a problem?
Horse-drawn carriages could only carry six people
Due to them having six spaces, they couldn't keep up with the amount of casualties
67
Give two problems with horse-drawn carriages
Horse-drawn carriages couldn't cope with the amount of injuries and deaths.
They were also not very secure and due to men being shaken about, the injuries often got worse.
Horse-drawn ambulances could only carry 6 people.
They had to go very slow.
They were uncomfortable.
68
What were barges used for?
Barges were used to transport wounded soldiers to the base hospitals on the French coast.
69
When did the first ambulance train come into use?
The first ambulance train came into use in November 1914.
70
Give one advantage and disadvantage of a train, compared to a barge
Trains could go faster than barges
But, trains were less comfortable for soldiers
71
Why were trains criticised for damaging the war effort?
Trains were criticised for damaging the war effort, because too many of them were moving around France and Belgium.
They were clogging up the network of transportation which made it difficult to transport healthy soldiers to the frontline.
72
Give one advantage of a barge/canal boat
Canal boats could carry lots of wounded soldiers
Canal boats were very comfortable
73
What was the main disadvantage of canal boats?
Canal boats were very slow, they went at 2-4mph
74
When news of the problems transporting soldiers using horse-drawn ambulances reached Britain, what did 'The Times' do?
When news of the problems transporting soldiers using horse-drawn ambulances reached Britain, 'The Times' ran an appeal for donations.
75
After three weeks of The Times' appeal for donations, how many ambulances could be bought?
After three weeks, enough money was raised to buy 512 ambulances.
76
When did the first motor ambulances reach the front line?
In October 1914, the first motor ambulances reached the front line.
77
In the winter, why were motor ambulances less effective than horse-drawn ambulances? What happened as a result of this?
During the winter, as the rain fell and dirt turned into thick mud, motor ambulances were even less effective than the horse drawn ones.
Motor vehicles couldn't cope with the muddy terrain when transporting the wounded due to their weight. Mud also slowed them down a lot.
Therefore, horses continued to be used, despite the horrendous conditions.
78
Why was mud a problem for motor ambulances?
Mud slowed motor ambulances down a lot
Motor ambulances often couldn't cope with the mud when transporting the wounded, as they were heavy
79
What was the chain of evacuation?
The Chain of Evacuation:
1) Stretcher bearers
2) Regimental Aid Post (RAP)
3) Dressing Station (ADS)
4) Casualty Clearing Station (CCS)
5) Base Hospitals
80
In 800m of tunnels, a fully working hospital was created. What was it called?
The hospital was called the Arras Tunnel hospital/Thompson's cave
81
Why was the Arras Tunnel hospital sometimes called 'Thompson's Cave'?
The Arras Tunnel hospital was sometimes called 'Thompsons Cave' after the RAMC officer who was responsible for equipping it.
82
What did the Arras Tunnel hospital include?
The Arras Tunnel hospital included:
Waiting rooms for the wounded
700 spaces where stretchers could be places as beds
An operating theatre
Rest stations for stretcher bearers
A mortuary to lay out the dead
83
What kind of services were supplied to the Arras Tunnel hospital?
Services like electricity and piped water were supplied to the Arras Tunnel hospital.
84
The Arras Tunnel hospital was abandoned during the Battle of Arras in 1917. Why?
The hospital was abandoned during the Battle of Arras in 1917, when it was hit by a shell which destroyed the water supply, but it luckily did not injure any people.
85
Give two features of stretcher bearers
Stretcher bearers were on the battlefield.
They collected injured soldiers and took them off the battlefield.
There were 4 stretcher bearers for 1 person, 6-8 if muddy.
There were 16 stretcher bearers per 1000 soldiers.
They gave basic first aid.
Stretcher bearers often got shot during battle, they had to cross no-man's-land which was extremely dangerous
They found it hard to move around corners too
86
Give 2 features of a Regimental Aid Post
Regimental Aid Posts were 200 metres away in a communication trench or deserted building.
Regimental Aid Posts moved closer before big battles.
They treated the 'walking wounded'
The RAP had 1 medical officer, and some support from stretcher bearers who had first aid knowledge.
They treated none serious injuries.
They were under fire, and it was dangerous.
They sent men for more medical treatment further down the chain.
87
Give 2 features of a Dressing Station
Dressing Stations were 400 metres to half a mile back from the RAPs.
They were located in tents, derelict buildings, dugouts or bunkers.
Men walked if they could or they were carried on stretchers.
Each dressing station was staffed by 10 medical officers plus medical orderlies/stretcher bearers of the RAMC. From 1915, nurses as well.
RAMC were called a Field Ambulance (not a vehicle) and they could deal with 150 wounded men.
They didn't have the medical facilities to tend for wounded men for more than a week.
Men were treated and sent back to fight or were moved along the chain of evacuation.
88
Give 2 features of a Casualty Clearing Station
Casualty Clearing Stations were a sufficient distance from the frontline to provide safety against attack, but close enough to be accessible by ambulance wagons.
The closest CCSs specialised in operating on critical injuries - chest wounds.
They were set up in factories or schools near railway lines to allow movement along the chain of evacuation.
Men could be treated there for up to 4 weeks.
They had a Triage System for injuries (This helped make decisions about treatment)
89
Give 2 parts of the Triage System in the Casualty Clearing Station
They had a Triage System for injuries (This helped make decisions about treatment):
3 categories:
1) Walking wounded - Patched up and returned to fight.
2) Hospital treatment required - Transported to a Base Hospital once they had been treated for any life-threatening injuries.
3) Severely wounded, no chance for recovery - These men were made comfortable, but resources were used for me who they could save.
90
Give 2 features of Base Hospitals
Base Hospitals were in Civilian hospitals or large converted buildings near railways.
They were located near the French/Belgium coast - Easy to get the men to a port and be shipped back home.
There were two types at the start of the war: Stationary hospital and the General hospital. Both performed the same tasks - Men treated until they could return to the fight or be sent back home to Britain.
They carried on with the treatment of wounded men, received from the CCS.
Major operations happened at the CCSs so doctors at Base Hospitals could experiment with new techniques.
Patients were divided into wards according to wounds - head/chest wounds.
Doctors became specialised in certain wounds.
91
At the start of the war, what were the two types of base hospital?
There were two types at the start of the war: Stationary hospital and the General hospital.
92
Why did major operations happen at the CCSs?
Major operations happened at the CCSs so doctors at Base Hospitals could experiment with new techniques.
93
Why were Casualty Clearing Stations set up in factories or schools near railway lines?
Casualty Clearing Stations were set up in factories or schools near railway lines to allow movement along the chain of evacuation.
94
What was the Royal Army Medical Corps?
The Royal Army Medical Corps was a branch of the army that was responsible for medical care. They were founded in 1898.
95
Why did the Royal Army Medical Corps have experience of modern warfare and wounds caused by modern weapons?
The RAMC had experience of modern warfare and wounds caused by modern weapons because of the Boer War 1899-1902
96
What was the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry?
The First Aid Nursing Yeomanry was the first women's voluntary organisation to send volunteers to the Western Front.
They drove ambulances and engaged in emergency first aid.
97
There were 9,000 men in the RAMC in 1914? How did ths change by 1918?
There was 9,000 men in the RAMC in 1914 but this grew by 12 times to 113,000 by 1918.
98
How did the RAMC recruit more doctors?
The RAMC recruited more doctors by raising the age at which doctors could serve abroad to age 45.
99
Why were doctors' jobs so difficult?
Doctors had to quickly learn about wounds they had never seen before, in conditions completely different from any they had experienced. This made their jobs very difficult.
100
Give one example of a job within the RAMC
Jobs within the RAMC:
Stretcher bearer
Doctor
Ambulance driver
101
What was the RAMC responsible for?
The RAMC was responsible for keeping men healthy and treating the wounded/sick
102
There were 300 people in the FANY in 1914. How did this change by 1918?
There were 300 people in the FANY in 1914 and 10,000 people by the end of the war.
103
The FANY turned away volunteer nurses who worked with French/Belgian armies. Why did attitudes change?
The FANY turned away volunteer nurses who worked with French/Belgian armies.
Attitudes changed because of the number of casualties and volunteer nurses were no longer turned away.
104
Give one example of a job performed by volunteer nurses within the FANY
Jobs performed by volunteer nurses:
Scrubbing floors
Cooking
Washing clothes
105
Who were the VADs? How did their role change?
The VADs were middle to upper class women who did scrubbing and cleaning.
They began to do more nursing, such as giving painkillers and changing dressings.
106
When was the FANY founded? What did the founder hope it would be like, what was it actually like?
The F.A.N.Y. was founded in 1907.
The founder (Edward Baker) hoped it would be a nursing cavalry, women on horseback helping the wounded.
Lots ended up being ambulance drivers and nurses, not on horseback though.
107
How many drivers and ambulances were there in the FANY unit running in Calais?
There were 22 drivers and 12 ambulances run by the FANY unit running in Calais.
108
What were the solutions to: pain, blood loss, and infection?
Solutions to problems on the Western Front:
Pain -> Anaesthetics
Blood Loss -> Blood transfusions
Infection -> Aseptic surgery
109
What were the three ways to remove gangrene?
Ways to remove gangrene:
Wound excision or debridement
The Carrel-Dakin method
Amputation
110
What was wound excision or debridement?
Wound excision or debridement was the cutting away of dead, damaged and infected tissue from around the site of the wound.
111
Why did wound excision/debridement need to be done as soon as possible?
It needed to be done as soon as possible because infection could spread quickly.
112
After wound excision, how did the wound need to be closed?
After excision, the wound needed to be closed by stitching.
113
After wound excision/debridement, if any infected tissue had not been removed before the wound was stitched, what would happen?
If any infected tissue had not been removed before the wound was stitched, the infection would spread again.
114
What was inefficient when treating gas gangrene? Give an example of this.
Antiseptics, such as carbolic lotion, were inefficient when treating gas gangrene.
115
What did the Carrel-Dakin method involve?
The Carrel-Dakin method involved using a sterilised salt solution in the wound through a tube and flushing the wound.
116
The saline solution for the Carrel-Dakin method only lasted six hours? So, how did it have to be made and why was this difficult?
The solution only lasted six hours and so had to be made as it was needed.
This could be difficult, especially when large numbers of wounded men needed treatment at the same time.
117
By 1918, how many men had lost limbs?
By 1918, 240,000 men had lost limbs - many of them because it was the only way to prevent the spread of infection and death.
118
Give one reason why injuries to the brain were almost always fatal, at the start of the war
Injuries to the brain were almost always fatal at the start of the war because:
Very few doctors who had experience of neurosurgery before the war.
Infection in the head was common and it was difficult to move men through the chain of evacuation
119
Give one new technique, that Harvey Cushing developed
An American neurosurgeon called Harvey Cushing developed new techniques:
He experimented with use of magnets to remove metal fragments from the brain.
He also used a local anaesthetic (patient awake but wounded area numb) instead of a general anaesthetic (patient asleep) to avoid brain swelling
120
What was used to remove metal fragments from the brain?
Magnets were used to remove metal fragments from the brain
121
Cushing operated on 45 patients in 1917. What percentage survived? What percentage usually survived?
Cushing operated on 45 patients in 1917 and 71% survived compared to the usual survival rate of 50%.
122
Why was it hard to move men with head injuries?
It has hard to move men with head injuries because they were often unconscious or confused
123
Who developed the use of plastic surgery during the war?
A New Zealand ear, nose and throat surgery, Harold Giles developed the use of plastic surgery during the war.
124
Give one solution Harold Gilles devised to overcome problems with face injuries
Using skin grafts (taking skin from one area to graft onto the wounded area)
Using jaw splints, wiring and metal replacement cheeks for facial reconstruction
125
Delicate surgery could not be completed in France, so what opened in 1917? Where?
Delicate surgery could not be completed in France, so Queens Hospital in Kent opened in 1917
126
After the Battle of the Somme in 1916, how many cases of facial damage did Harold Gilles personally deal with?
After the Battle of the Somme in 1916, Gilles personally dealt with about 2,000 cases of facial damage.
127
By 1915, how many hospitals in France specialised in plastic surgery?
By 1915, 7 hospitals in France specialised in plastic surgery, especially head injuries.
128
In total, how many plastic surgery operations were carried out throughout the war?
In total, over 12,000 plastic surgery operations were carried out throughout the war.
129
Plastic surgery could not be undertaken in France, so where were soldiers sent?
Plastic surgery could not be undertaken in France, so soldiers had to be sent back to Britain.
130
Give one advantage and one disadvantage of plastic surgery
There was a long recovery time
Plastic surgery gave soldiers who had faced face injuries more confidence to go out, and be with their families, as their faces were able to be more 'normal looking'.
131
Give 5 issues facing medicine or surgeons during World War One
Issues facing medicine/surgeons during WW1:
Chlorine, phosgene, mustard gas
Trench foot
Trench fever
STI's
Infection
Antibiotics not yet discovered
Low rank given to female doctors
Shellshock
No understanding of mental health
Lack of authority
Poor situation in trenches
Having to collect the wounded soldiers, unarmed
Nowhere to take the wounded
Time from being wounded to getting to the hospital
Head injuries
Blood loss
132
Who designed the Thomas Splint? How many lives did it save during WW1?
The Thomas splint, designed by Hugh Owen Thomas, saved thousands of men's lives during World War 1.
133
What did the Thomas Splint do?
The splint kept a broken femur in place whilst the person was being moved.
134
Give one advantage of the Thomas Splint
The splint helped to reduce blood loss and made the bone heal in the correct position.
The Thomas splint reduced the number of fatalities caused by femur fractures in the trenches from 80% to 20%.
135
Who developed a better way to treat wounds during the war?
During the war, a Belgian doctor called Antoine Depage developed a better way to treat wounds.
136
What did Belgian doctor, Antoine Depage do?
Depage treated every wound as if it was already infected.
137
What were the two main steps in Antoine Depage's treatment?
Depage treated every wound as if it was already infected. There were two main steps in his treatment:
1) The wound was properly and thoroughly explored and objects like shrapnel or bits of clothing were removed.
Depage also realised that removing all damaged tissue and then washing the wound with antiseptic decreased the chance of infection.
2) Depage left the wound open to the air for about 24 to 48 hours.
Next, he looked at a swab of the wound under a microscope to check for bacteria.
If the wound wasn't infected, then he closed it up — this was called delayed primary closure.
138
How many mobile x-ray units existed at the start of the war?
Only 2 mobile x-ray units existed at the start of the war
139
What was the main use of x-rays during the war?
X-rays main use was to identify shell fragments and bullets in wounds.
140
What would be done with x-rays to help the surgeon identify the location of shrapnel and bullets?
Two x-rays would be taken from different angles and this helped the surgeon to identify quite accurately the location of shrapnel and bullets in the body.
141
Give two problems with mobile x-ray units
X-rays could not detect all objects in the body. For example, fragments of clothing that were driven into wounds with shrapnel would not show up on an x-ray.
It took around 90 minutes to perform an x-ray.
The mobile x-rays took a while to set up and the picture quality was poorer than in Base Hospitals, but they could still see shrapnel.
The tubes used in x-ray machines were fragile and overheated quite quickly. This meant that x-ray machines could only be used for about one hour at a time and then had to be left to cool down.
142
How long did a mobile x-ray unit take to perform an x-ray?
A mobile x-ray unit took 90 minutes to perform an x-ray
143
At the start of the war, blood was directly transfused from one person to another. What was the problem with this method?
This process was slow and often unsuccessful, it also required to donor to be physically present.
144
What did the syringe-cannula method involve?
The syringe-cannula method involved taking blood from a donor using a needle and syringe before quickly transfusing it.
The difficulty was that blood could clot in the syringe.
145
Originally, what was the problem with blood during transfusions?
Blood would clot in the syringe
146
What medical invention was introduced at the Battle of Cambrai?
The world's first blood bank was set up at the Battle of Cambrai.
Blood was collected before the battle, ready to treat the injured, rather than reactively after the battle when men were dying.
147
What medical invention was introduced at the Battle of Cambrai?
The world's first blood bank was set up at the Battle of Cambrai.
Blood was collected before the battle, ready to treat the injured, rather than reactively after the battle when men were dying.
148
Give one problem with blood transfusions originally
Patients would often bleed to death and blood could not be stored, so the patient and donor had to be together.
There were always shortages of blood and not all transfusions were successful - some patients rejected the blood.
Blood would clot in the syringe and it could therefore not be transferred to the patient.
149
Originally, where were blood transfusions done?
Blood transfusions were originally done at base hospitals, using syringe and tubes to transfer blood from donor to patient
150
By 1917, blood transfusions were being carried out in Casualty Clearing Stations. Why?
By 1917, blood transfusions were being carried out in Casualty Clearing Stations because they had been so successful at base hospitals.
151
During heavy fighting, not enough healthy men were available to donate blood. What did this lead to?
Not enough healthy men being available to donate blood lead to deaths
152
What did the blood bank at Cambrai allow for?
The blood bank made it so blood could be stored, without a donor having to be present
153
Give one advantage of the blood bank at Cambrai
Many more people could be cured
Blood loss was less of a problem
Donors would not have to be directly next to the patient.
154
What did Albert Hustin discover in 1914?
In 1914, Albert Hustin discovered a way of storing blood without it clotting, using sodium citrate.
155
What did Francis Rous and James Turner discover in 1915?
In 1915, Francis Rous and James Turner found that adding a citrate glucose solution to the blood meant it could be kept refridgerated for up to 4 weeks.
156
What was opened in 1938?
In 1938, the British National Blood Transfusion Service was opened.
157
Give three reasons why the Western Front was a catalyst for medical improvements
Why the Western Front was a catalyst for medical improvements:
The nature of the Western Front created new problems (for example, deep infections) which needed urgent solutions.
Industry and government devoted resources to developing and improving medical and surgical equipment.
Surgeons did many more operations, greatly increasing their experience of tackling particular problems and making them specialists in particular types of operation.
Doctors had to find solutions to the new problems created by the more powerful weapons.
There was great pressure on doctors to get men fit to return to service. Therefore, doctors shared and communicated their ideas to improve treatments as rapidly as possible.
Everyone in the medical services worked far harder and longer than in peacetime and worked more in teams.
158
Who discovered x-rays? When?
X-rays were discovered by accident in 1895 by Wilhelm Rontgen.
159
Give 2 problems with x-rays
Problems with x-rays:
Health risks from x-rays were not understood, radiation levels were 1,500 times stronger than those today, so patients could lose hair or suffer burns
Rontgen's x-ray machine contained a glass tube which was fragile
X-rays took about 90 minutes to complete, a long time
Big x-ray machines were being developed but thev were immovable
160
What did James Blundell do?
James Blundell did the first experiments on human to human blood transfusions
He developed techniques/equipment so that transfusions were possible by the start of WW1.
161
What did blood loss often cause?
Blood loss often caused shock and death
162
What did Karl Landsteiner discover in 1901?
Karl Landsteiner discovered blood groups in 1901
163
What was the universal blood group?
O was the universal blood group
164
Why was the discovery of blood groups significant?
The discovery of blood groups meant that donors and patients could be matched
It would also stop the issue of mixing the wrong blood groups
165
Give one feature of aseptic surgery
Aseptic Surgery included:
All medical equipment was steam sterilised whilst the room was air sterilised to kill germs
All medical staff had to hash before entering the surgery and wore clean gowns and rubber gloves
166
When did Louis Pasteur publish his germ theory?
Louis Pasteur published his germ theory in 1861
167
Describe the events of the First Battle of Ypres
The First Battle of Ypres (1914):
During the first months of the war, the BEF had moved to the town of Ypres in western Belgium, to prevent German advance towards the sea.
In the autumn of 1914, the Germans launched an attack on the British positions to the east and north-east of Ypres.
The British lost 50,000 troops in this battle.
The British held on to Ypres which meant the English controlled the Channel ports. The British could supply and reinforce the British Army.
168
Describe the events of the Second Battle of Ypres
The Second Battle of Ypres (1915):
This was the first time chemical warfare was used in the war. The Germans used chlorine gas.
The British lost 59,000 men.
By the end of the battle, the Germans had moved about two miles closer to the town of Ypres on the eastern side of the salient.
169
Describe the events of the Battle of the Somme
The Battle of the Somme (1916):
The British attack on the Somme aimed to take ground from the Germans. It was launched on the 1st July 1916.
On the first day of the battle, the British lost 57,000 men, with 20,000 men killed.
The British used the creeping barrage for the first time. Artillery shells landed just in front of the advancing British troops.
The British tried using tanks - this was the first use of tanks in warfare. However, the tanks had many technical problems and they were not very successful.
By the end of the Battle of Somme in November 1916, it is estimated that the British suffered over 400,000 casualties.
170
Describe the events of the Battle of Arras
The Battle of Arras (1917):
The aim of the offensive was to break through the German lines.
Use of tunnels and caves by the British to move and house 25,000 men before battle.
The British advanced about 8 miles in 2 days.
However, as the advance slowed, virtually no further progress was made and by the end of the offensive in May, there was nearly 160,000 casualties (British and Canadians).
Battle of Arras (1917):
171
Describe the events of the Third Battle of Ypres
The Third Battle of Ypres (1917):
The british advanced 2 miles on the first day of the battle.
Poor weather stopped the advance. The ground turned to mud.
Many men fell in the mud and drowned.
The cost of this advance was an estimated 245,000 British casualties.
172
Describe the events of the Battle of Cambrai
The Battle of Cambrai:
The Battle of Cambrai was launched on the 20th October 1917.
The artillery barrage was changed, so less warning of the coming attack was given to the Germans.
This battle featured the first large-scale use of tanks - nearly 500 tanks were used.
173
What was Hill 60?
Hill 60 was a man-made hill to the south-east of Ypres.
174
Describe the use of mines at Hill 60
The use of mines at Hill 60:
Hill 60 was a man-made hill to the south-east of Ypres.
The Germans had captured it in December 1914 and its height have them a strategic advantage in this area.
The British used the method of offensive mining to take in back in April 1915. This involved tunneling into and under the hill.
Five mines were placed in the tunnels.
When the mines exploded, they blew the top off of Hill 60 and the British were able to take this strategically important position.
175
What battle featured the first large-scale use of tanks?
The Battle of Cambrai featured the first large-scale use of tanks
176
In which battle did the British use the creeping barrage for the first time?
In the Battle of the Somme, the British used the creeping barrage for the first time
177
When was the Armistice signed?
The Armistice was signed on the 11th November 1918
178
How many people were affected by trench fever?
500,000 people were affected by trench fever
179
How many people were affected by trench foot, in 1914/15?
20,000 people were affected by trench foot in 1914/15
180
How many people were affected by shellshock?
80,000 people were affected by shellshock
181
What was gas gangrene caused by?
Gas gangrene was caused by fertiliser in the soil
182
What was available for gas gangrene, by the end of 1914?
Anti-tetanus injections were available from the end of 1914
183
Give one treatment of gas gangrene
Treatments of gas gangrene:
Carrel-Dakin method
Wound excision
Amputation
