Industrial Medicine (1700-1900) Flashcards
1
Q
The industrial revolution brought more people into cities? What effect did this have on health?
A
Because of the increased number of people living in cities, public health declined due to overcrowding and poor sanitisation
2
Q
What conditions did many people live in, during the industrial revolution?
A
Many people lived in cramped conditions with little access to good sanitation.
3
Q
Give 2 examples of widespread epidemics of infectious diseases
A
Infectious diseases:
Cholera, typhoid, typhus, smallpox, tuberculosis
4
Q
What were the three main reasons for the public health crisis?
A
The three main reasons for the public health crisis:
The rapid pace of industrialisation.
Weak local and national government.
Lack of understanding of the causes of disease.
5
Q
What does Laissez-faire mean? How was this word used?
A
Laissez-faire is a French word, meaning ‘leave be’.
This word was used to describe governments who don’t get involved in the day-to-day lives of their populations.
6
Q
What was the Great Stink, when was it?
A
The Great Stink was an event in Central London during July and August 1858 in which the hot weather exacerbated the smell of untreated human waste and industrial effluent that was present on the banks of the River Thames.
7
Q
What was the cause of the Great Stink?
A
The hot weather was the cause of the Great Stink
Also, an aging sewer system that directly emptied into the Thames caused the Great Stink
8
Q
Why was London so terrified of the Great Stink?
A
People believed that diseases could be transmitted by miasma, bad smells.
The unbearable smell of human waste in the Thames caused people to panic about getting sick from the bad air.
9
Q
Who did Parliament commission to build a new sewer system?
A
Parliament commissioned the great engineer, Joseph Bazalgette to build a new sewer system
10
Q
Why did the government eventually take action about the smell from the Thames?
A
The government only took action about the smell when it impacted them. The Parliament building was built on the Thames, so they needed to fix the problem quickly.
11
Q
What did the egg-shaped design of Bazalgette’s sewage system do?
A
The egg shaped design of Bazalgette’s new sewage system meant that water and waste wouldn’t get stuck to the walls.
12
Q
Who was Edwin Chadwick?
A
Edwin Chadwick was a civil servant, employed by the Poor Law Commission.
13
Q
What was Edwin Chadwick asked to do, by Parliament?
A
Edwin Chadwick was asked by Parliament to investigate living conditions in Britain.
14
Q
What did his 1842 Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population conclude?
A
His report concluded that a lot of poverty and ill health was caused by terrible living conditions and not by idleness.
15
Q
How did people react to Edwin Chadwick’s report?
A
People were shocked and public opinion changed
16
Q
What were the three main things Chadwick concluded were needed to improve health?
A
Chadwick concluded that three main things were needed to improve health:
Refuse removal
An effective sewerage system and clean running water in every house
A qualified medical officer appointed in each area
17
Q
What theory did Chadwick believe in?
A
Edwin Chadwick believed in miasma and did not push forward correct scientific methods for the prevention of disease
18
Q
What did Edwin Chadwick’s work contribute to?
A
Chadwick’s work contributed to the Public Health Acts
19
Q
Give one thing Edwin Chadwick suggested the government did to improve health?
A
Chadwick recommended that the government:
Provided clean water
Improved drainage systems
Enabled local councils to clear away refuse from homes and streets
20
Q
At the time, Edwin Chadwick wasn’t very significant. Why did he become more significant later on?
A
Chadwick became more successful later on due to other people publishing evidence that supported his claims
21
Q
Give one symptom of cholera
A
Symptoms of cholera:
Dehydration (Because of diarrhoea)
Diarrhoea
Thicker blood - which ruptured blood vessels under the skin and made the skin turn blue
22
Q
How did Cholera spread?
A
Cholera spread by person to person contact, or through water contaminated with the faeces of a sufferer.
23
Q
Who did cholera mainly affect?
A
Cholera mainly affected the poorest people in the slums, workhouses, prisons and asylums
24
Q
What problem did doctors have with cholera?
A
Doctors found cholera impossible to treat
25
Give one attempt to prevent the spread of cholera
Attempts to prevent the spread of cholera:
Steps were taken to clean up the dirtiest streets
The belief was that miasma and rotting material caused disease
Government encouraged cities to set up boards of health and provide clean water supplies
26
When did cholera arrive in Great Britain? When did it reach London?
Cholera arrived in Great Britain in 1831. It arrived in London from 1832.
27
After the first epidemic of cholera, how many more were there?
There were four further epidemics across the country for the next three decades
28
By the end of 1832, how many people had cholera killed?
By the end of 1832, cholera had killed 5,275 people
29
Who was John Snow?
John Snow was a British doctor (physician)
30
Why did John Snow realise cholera wasn't caused by miasma?
Snow realised cholera wasn't caused by miasma because it affected the gut and not the lungs.
31
John Snow looked at a map of deaths from cholera. What did he find?
He looked at a map of deaths from cholera and found they were all located close to a pump. That pump being the Broad Street Pump.
32
There was one person who died from cholera, who lived in a different town to everyone else. How was this explained and what did this prove?
It was later discovered that they were getting water from the Broad Street Pump sent to them because they preferred how it tasted.
This proved Snow's theory that the disease travelled in water and had something to do with the Broad Street Pump.
33
How many deaths were there from cholera, within 200m of the Broad Street pump?
Within 200m of the Broad Street Pump, there were 500 deaths.
34
What was a cesspit?
A cesspit was a pit for storing sewage or waste
35
Who was and wasn't affected by the infected water from the Broad Street pump?
Workers in factories close to the pump were badly affected.
Workhouse residents who had their own water supply weren't badly affected.
Brewery workers who drank free beer weren't affected.
36
What did John Snow do, to stop the Broad Street pump from being used?
Snow took the handle off of the Broad Street pump, which stopped people getting water from it and therefore stopped the spread of the disease
37
What technique, that is still used today, did Snow use to predict where cholera spread from?
Snow used a map of the area where the cholera outbreak was. He predicted how the disease spread from where the infected patients were.
38
The General Board of Health clung onto the miasma theory, why?
The General Board of Health were avoiding the cost of providing clean water
39
What was the problem with Snow's theory?
Snow had no scientific evidence to show what caused the disease.
It would be another seven years before Pasteur published his Germ Theory (three years after Snow died) and another 30 years before Koch isolated the bacterium that caused the disease.
40
Give two positive/negative impacts of John Snow
Positive impacts:
Proved that cholera was caused by dirty water
Short term- saved lives in the area around the pump (Soho)
Did (eventually) lead to government improving the sewage supply. Joseph Bazalgette planned this from 1875 - although this was more down to the Great Stink in 1858
Negative impacts:
No scientific proof - did not know about germs until 3 years after Snow's death; 30 years before Koch isolated the germ that caused it
Not believed by many people - some scientists still believed in miasmas
Government refused to act immediately - cost
41
What is inoculation?
Inoculation is the act of immunizing someone against a disease by introducing infective material, microorganisms, or vaccine into the body.
42
What was smallpox?
Smallpox was a serious infectious disease that was contagious.
43
What were the symptoms of smallpox?
People who had smallpox had a fever and a distinctive, progressive skin rash.
44
What was cowpox?
Cowpox was an infectious disease that caused large blisters, a fever and swollen glands.
45
How was cowpox typically caught?
Cowpox was typically caught after contact with an infected cow.
46
What was the worst epidemic of smallpox? How many people died?
The worst smallpox epidemic was in 1796, when 3548 people died.
47
Who was Edward Jenner?
Edward Jenner was a doctor
48
What happened when Edward Jenner was 8?
When Jenner was 8, there was an outbreak of smallpox
49
During the smallpox outbreak, what did Jenners doctor do to cure him and his friends?
What actually happened?
Jenner's doctor grinded up scabs and blew powdered scabs into his and his friend's noses in hope of curing them
However, the boys actually caught smallpox
50
Why did Jenner decide to become a doctor?
Jenner decided to be a doctor because he saw his friend die in front of him from smallpox
51
To understand smallpox, what did Jenner do?
To understand smallpox, Jenner investigated scabs and read about smallpox
52
Describe the process in which Jenner discovered the first vaccine
Edward Jenner regularly treated dairy maids for cowpox and noticed that during the smallpox epidemic, none of the maids he had previously treated had caught it. He decided the two must be connected.
He tested his theory in 1796 by infecting James Phipps, a young local boy, with cowpox.
Six weeks later, he infected the boy with smallpox, but James did not catch it.
After testing his theory on multiple people, he wrote up his findings, naming the technique 'vaccination' after the Latin word for cow, 'vacca'.
53
Give one impact of Edward Jenner
He developed the first vaccine, allowing many others to be made in the future.
He saved many lives with the vaccine.
The vaccine replaced the dangers of inoculation.
54
What did the Vaccination Act of 1853 order? What did the Act of 1867 extend this to?
The Vaccination Act of 1853 ordered mandatory vaccination for infants up to 3 months old.
The Act of 1867 extended this age requirement up to 14 years, adding penalties for vaccine refusal.
55
Why were the Vaccination Acts met with resistance?
The laws were met with immediate resistance from citizens who demanded the right to control their bodies and those of their children.
56
What two leagues formed in response to the mandatory Vaccination Acts?
The Anti Vaccination League and the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League formed in response to the mandatory laws
57
In what year did one of the most notorious anti-vaccination demonstrations take place? What happened, how many people were there?
1885 saw one of the most notorious anti-vaccination demonstrations in which 80,000 - 100,000 anti-vaccinators led an elaborate march, complete with banners, a child's coffin and an effigy of Jenner.
58
What was the Church's response to the first vaccine?
The Church had a negative response. They didn't like change and thought vaccines were against God's will.
59
What were the Inoculators responses to the first vaccine?
The innoculators had a negative response. They were the ones treating people before the vaccine, now they are losing money because the vaccine treats people.
60
What was the Royal Society's response to the first vaccine?
The Royal Society had a negative response. The scientific community opposed it.
61
What were the citizens' responses to the first vaccine?
The citizens had a negative response. They demanded the right to control their bodies and those of their children.
62
What was Parliament's response to the first vaccine?
Parliament had a positive response. They preferred vaccination over inoculation because it was safer and cheaper.
63
Give two short term impacts of the smallpox vaccine
Short term:
It saved many lives
The vaccine was very popular overseas
Some still caught smallpox
The vaccine led to anti-Jenner propaganda
100,000 people were vaccinated
64
Give one long term impact of the smallpox vaccine
Long term:
Vaccination had become normal
Many people saved, and cases fell drastically
Government forced compulsory vaccinations
65
Who was Florence Nightingale?
Florence Nightingale was a nurse born on May 12th 1820. She was brought up in an upper-class British family and studied in Dusseldorf, Germany.
66
What did Florence Nightingale gain a reputation for?
Nightingale gained a reputation for being a reformer and advocate for public health.
67
Florence Nightingale travelled to the Crimean War. What did she find?
She travelled to the Crimean War and found hospitals build on cesspools, patients lying in their filth and more soldiers were dying of infection than on the battlefield.
68
When Nightingale returned to England after the Crimean War, what did she do?
When she returned to England, she set up the Nightingale Training School For Nurses at St. Thomas Hospital in London.
Nurses were trained on sanitary matters.
69
Give two changes Florence Nightingale made to the Scutari Hospital during the Crimean War
Nightingale and her nurses quickly made changes:
They demanded 300 scrubbing brushes to get rid of any dirt that surrounded the patients, better organisation of nurses to ensure patients were treated efficiently and effectively.
She also introduced fresh bed linen and good meals as well as improved air ventilation and clean water access.
The changes made by Nightingale were revolutionary. Within six months, mortality rates dropped from 40% to 2%.
Nightingale came home a national hero and continued her work improving conditions in British hospitals.
70
What did Nightingale publish in 1859? What did it set out?
Nightingale published 'Notes on Nursing', setting out key roles of nurses and the importance of thorough training.
71
Give two impacts of Florence Nightingale
Impacts of Florence Nightingale:
She made it so that hospitals were made from cleanable materials, so dirt could be washed off. Because she believed that dirt spreads disease.
She promoted 'pavilion style' hospitals where separate wards were built to ensure infectious patients could be kept separate.
She made nursing a respectable occupation. 'Nightingale Nurses' were often middle class women. Previously they had been from working class background and had a reputation for being drunk, flirtatious and uncaring.
Rigorous training turned nursing into a profession, rather than a simple, unskilled job. This encouraged more women to sign up and so the number of nurses grew rapidly.
72
What did the Germ Theory suggest?
The Germ Theory suggested that microbes were the cause of decay (not the product)
73
What did Spontaneous Generation suggest?
Spontaneous Generation suggested that microbes were the product of decay (not the cause of it)
74
Why was Spontaneous Generation important at the time?
Spontaneous generation was important at the time because it would have inspired other people to investigate germs and microbes and come up with their own theories.
75
Why was Spontaneous Generation wrong?
Spontaneous Generation was wrong because decay did not happen to sterilised matter.
76
What is Pasteurisation?
Pasteurisation is the process of heating a liquid and cooling it down (to kill germs)
77
What theory did Louis Pasteur develop?
Louis Pasteur developed the Germ Theory.
78
Who was Louis Pasteur?
Louis Pasteur was a French scientist.
79
Why was Pasteur hired by a brewery? What did he discover and then do, to combat this?
Pasteur was hired by a brewery to figure out why the beer was going off.
He discovered that it was a particular microorganism that was causing it to go off. He heated it and cooled it, killing the germs.
80
What academy did Louis Pasteur enter?
Louis Pasteur entered the French Academy Of Science.
81
What are the four basic principles of the Germ Theory?
The four basic principles of the Germ Theory:
1) The air contains living organisms
2) Microbes are not evenly distributed in the air
3) Microbes in the air cause decay
4) Microbes can be killed by heating them
82
In Britain, the theory of Spontaneous Generation continued to be important until the 1870s. Why?
The theory of Sponatenous Generation was promoted by Dr Henry Bastian, who was one of the most powerful doctors in the country.
83
To begin with, Pasteur's work had almost no impact on British ideas about the causes of illness and disease. Why?
Pasteur's work had little impact because he was not a doctor and his work focused on decay and spoiled food, not disease
84
Give two impacts of Louis Pasteur
To begin with, Pasteur's work had almost no impact on British ideas about the causes of illness and disease. He was not a doctor and his work focused on decay and spoiled food, not disease (Pasteur)
The medical world trusted Bastian's beliefs rather than Tyndall's theory because Bastian was a physicist. (Pasteur)
It is now understood that bacteria caused decay and was not created by it. (Pasteur)
Louis Pasteur used the discovery of disease causing bacterium to invent a vaccine for anthrax, chicken cholera and rabies. (Pasteur)
Using Pasteur's methods, scientists were able to develop vaccines in the 20th century for tuberculosis, diphtheria and tetanus. (Pasteur)
85
Give two impacts of the Germ Theory
In Britain, the theory of spontaneous generation continued to be important until the 1870s. It was promoted by Dr Henry Bastian, who was one of the most powerful doctors in the country. (Germ Theory)
Joseph Lister used Pasteur's germ theory and linked it to the infection problems his surgical patients had experienced. (Germ Theory)
In January 1870, John Tyndall gave a lecture linking his discovery of small organic particles in the air with Pasteur's germ theory and Lister's work on wound infection. Tyndall theorised that dust particles carried the germs that caused disease. (Germ Theory)
Lister's ideas were also doubted as he could not prove his theory - although they could see microbes, no one knew what they were or all the role they played. (Germ Theory)
Attitudes among doctors meant people refused to recognise the link between germs and disease - even though the link was correct. (Germ Theory)
Now people knew microbes in the air could cause disease, less people focused on miasma. (Pasteur) (Germ Theory)
From 1887, all surgical items had to be steam sterilised. (Germ Theory)
86
Who was Robert Koch?
Robert Koch was a German physician.
87
What did Robert Koch discover in 1883? Then what did he do in 1884?
In 1883, he discovered cholera and in 1884 he proved that it is spread in water supplies when he found it in drinking water in India.
This also provided proof for John Snow's theory
88
Why was the microscope so important for the development of Germ Theory?
Clearer images and higher magnification made it possible to spot most microorganisms, although not all.
89
What did Koch's colleague, Joseph Petri develop?
Joseph Petri developed the Petri dish
90
What method did Koch develop, that made it easier to study bacteria?
Koch developed a new method of growing them, using agar jelly in a petri dish. This made it easier to study the bacteria under a microscope.
91
What method did Koch develop, to make bacteria easier to see?
Koch developed a method for staining them with industrial dyes, to make them easier to see.
92
Give two microbes responsible for other diseases that Koch discovered
He went on to discover the microbes responsible for other diseases such as:
Diphtheria, pneumonia, meningitis, the plague, tetanus and various other infections.
93
What did Robert Koch recieve in 1905?
Koch received the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1905.
94
What were the four steps to identifying microbes that Robert Koch said?
Robert Koch said there were four steps to identifying disease-causing microbes:
1) The microbe is present in every case of the disease
2) Once taken from the body, the microbe can be reproduced into a pure culture
3) The disease can be reproduced in test animals using that culture
4) The microbes can be taken out of the test animals and used to start a fresh culture
95
Give two impacts of Robert Koch
Koch discovered it was microbes in the drinking water when he travelled to Calcutta. However the British Government ignored his findings. (No Impact)
The British Government still followed the belief that Miasma caused Cholera. The government refused to listen to Koch in the short term. (Slow Impact)
The British Medical Association (BMA - all doctors are a member of the organisation) didn't support the work of Koch or Pasteur on infectious disease. (No Impact)
By the end of the 19th century, the mystery around what caused illness and disease had been solved, but it took time for this to be accepted by the medical profession. (Slow Impact)
96
Give two impacts of the Germ Theory
Progress in the treatment and prevention using germ theory was slow in Britain. (Slow Impact)
The British government rejected germ theory. (No Impact)
Koch could create vaccines once specific disease causing microbes were identified. (Positive Impact)
The British Medical Association (BMA - all doctors are a member of the organisation) didn't support the work of Koch or Pasteur on infectious disease. (No Impact)
As we progress through the 20th century, germ theory and the study of bacteria has an enormous impact on understanding the cause of disease. (Positive Impact)
Doctors now look for symptoms and try to match them to the disease caused by a specific microbe. (Positive Impact)
By the end of the 19th century, the mystery around what caused illness and disease had been solved, but it took time for this to be accepted by the medical profession. (Slow Impact)
97
Due to the Enlightenment, and dangerous outbreaks of disease, what happened to atittudes to disease?
Due to the Enlightenment, they were more interested in rational explanations for disease.
Because of dangerous outbreaks of disease, many people were horrified by the sights they saw on the street and the impact bad health had on the poor.
98
People were reluctant to change their minds.
When was proof shown that specific microbes were always present when people were suffering from a certain disease?
This proof was provided in the 1880s
The Germ Theory then became an accepted fact
99
Give three features of the 1848 Public Health Act
The 1848 Public Health Act:
Aimed to improve sanitary conditions of towns
It encouraged cities to set up Public Boards of Health
It raised taxes from the wealthy in cities
Aimed to clean the streets, and have clean water, etc
It was not compulsory - which meant it didn't have much impact
100
Give two features of the 1875 Public Health Act
The 1875 Public Health Act:
The 1875 Public Health Act was compulsory
After another cholera outbreak in 1866-67, pressure grew for government action and in 1875 a second Public Health Act was passed.
Living conditions in Britain's industrial towns gradually started to improve.
101
Give 5 things all towns and councils had to do, following the introduction of the 1875 Public Health Act
Following the introduction of the act:
All town and councils had to:
Provide clean water to prevent disease
Dispose of all sewage cleanly to prevent polluting water
Build public toilets
Appoint a public officer of health to monitor outbreaks of disease
Ensure new houses were of a higher quality to prevent overcrowding
Provide public parks for exercise
Inspect lodging houses to make sure they were clean and healthy
Check the quality of food to make sure it didn't contain anything that could cause harm
Create street lighting to prevent accidents
102
How many more cholera epidemics were there in the UK, after the 1875 Public Health Act was passed?
After the passing of the act, there were no more cholera epidemics in the United Kingdom.
103
Who was James Simpson?
James Simpson was a Scottish obstetrician and a significant figure in the history of medicine.
104
James Simpson was the first person to be knighted for services to medicine. Why?
James Simpson was the first person to be knighted for services to medicine because of the positive impact that regular use of anaesthesia had on surgery.
105
Give two features of surgery before the 19th century
Surgery before the 19th century:
Opium had been used for some time to calm patients
Surgeries had to be performed quickly, to prevent the patient from dying of blood loss
If the patient survived, infection would often set in
No anaesthetic, so patients had to go through excruciating pain (which sometimes sent them into shock)
Pain, blood loss and infection were the 3 biggest problems
106
What did Humphry Davy, a dentist's assistant, do in 1795? What did he find?
Humphry Davy tried inhaling nitrous oxide or 'laughing gas'. He discovered that it numbed pain.
107
What did William E. Clarke, an American chemist and doctor, do in 1842?
In 1842, William E. Clarke successfully used ether to anaesthetise a patient to remove a tooth.
108
When did James Simpson discover chloroform?
James Simpson discovered chloroform in 1847
109
What year did Queen Victoria use chloroform during the birth of Prince Leopold? How did she find it?
Queen Victoria used chloroform in 1853, during the birth of Prince Leopold
She spoke favourably of it
110
How was Chloroform discovered?
Simpson gathered a group of friends together and they inhaled vapours of various chemicals.
After sniffing chloroform, everyone passed out. Clearly, chloroform was an effective anaesthetic.
111
What were the two negative side effects of chloroform?
Negative side effects of chloroform:
1) It was easy to overdose a patient and kill them
2) It sometimes affected the heart which caused some healthy and fit people to die shortly after inhaling it
112
Why did chloroform become popular?
Chloroform became popular because it was administered to Queen Victoria during the birth of her son in 1853.
113
What did the use of anaesthetics now allow doctors to do? But, what was the problem with this?
The use of anaesthetics made it possible for doctors to attempt lengthier and more complex operations.
However, because anaesthetics allowed for deeper surgery to be attempted, infection and bleeding became even bigger problems.
114
Why was infection a big problem in surgery?
Infection was a big problem in surgery because people weren't aware of germs at the beginning of the 19th century.
115
If people survived surgery, what did they often die of later?
If people survived surgery, they often later died from gangrene or sepsis
116
Give three ways to reduce infection
Ways to reduce infection during surgery:
Wear hairnets, wash hands, clean new equipment, use new equipment, wear gloves, clean the room, wear scrubs, wear masks
117
Describe something you would see in an operating room, at the beginning of the 19th century
In an operating room, you would see:
A doctor wearing a blood-stained coat (this made them look more experienced), unwashed instruments, lots of people present during the surgery.
All of this was down to a lack of understanding about germs.
118
Who was Joseph Lister?
Joseph Lister was an English surgeon.
119
What did Lister theorise about microbes and rotting?
Lister theorised that, if microbes in the air caused wine and vinegar to go bad, perhaps microbes also caused flesh to rot.
120
What was carbolic acid used for, before surgery?
Before surgery, carbolic acid was used in treating surgery
121
Describe how carbolic acid was discovered by Lister, to be an effective antiseptic
Lister started to look for a chemical that would clear bacteria from wounds. He was aware of the use of carbolic acid in sewage treatments.
So, in 1865, he operated on a patient with a broken leg and added a bandage soaked in carbolic acid. The wound healed cleanly.
122
Give one way in which carbolic acid was used during surgery
In surgery, carbolic acid was used to clean wounds, and the air.
123
Give two reasons why carbolic acid didn't catch on
Carbolic acid didn't catch on because:
1) It dried out the skin and left an acid smell, surgeons argued that it couldn't be good for the patient
2) The method wasn't fully understood
3) Joseph Lister focused more on getting people to use it, than finding the science behind it
124
Define antiseptic
Antiseptic is something that reduces infection during surgery
125
Define aseptic
Aseptic is something that reduces infection before surgery
126
Give one example of an antiseptic product
Examples of antiseptic products:
Sprays, wipes
127
Give one example of an aseptic method
Examples of aseptic methods:
Cleaning hands, sterilising equipment
128
Give two positive impacts of carbolic acid
Positive impacts of carbolic acid:
Infection rates in surgery fell from 50% to 15% in just 4 years
The use of carbolic acid didn't catch on, but the idea of antiseptic surgery did
Attitude amongst surgeons changed; they understood that safe surgery wasn't only possible, but their duty
By 1900, instruments were steam cleaned, operating threatres were scrubbed spotless, rubber gloves and surgical gowns were introduced and surgeons used face masks during operations
129
Give one negative impact of carbolic acid
Negative impacts of carbolic acid:
Even Lister himself didn't understand microbes and still wore normal clothes during surgery.
Some surgeons said that carbolic acid left a weird odour in their operating rooms.
By 1890, even Lister had stopped using carbolic acid in surgery.
130
Give three reasons why there was opposition to anaesthetics
People didn't trust anaesthetics as the death rate actually increased, in reality it was because surgeons were able to cut deeper, increasing the risk of infection (before carbolic acid) and bleeding.
The Victorians believed that pain relief was interfering with God's plan, particularly in childbirth, which was meant to be painful.
Some doctors believed that patients were more likely to die if they were unconscious during the operation, rather than awake and screaming.
Some believed anaesthetics shouldn't be used in the war as it would make soldiers 'soft'.
Surgeons were inexperienced in using chemicals such as chloroform and therefore the risk of overdose was more likely.
Stories such as 15-year-old Hannah Greener who died while having her toenail removed scared the public.
131
Give three reasons why there was opposition to antiseptic methods
"The whole scene of an operation was covered in carbolic spray. Our faces and coat-sleeves often dipped with it. It was a relief when the hospital stopped using it. It was expensive, awkward and often broke down."
Lister kept changing his methods as he searched for even better ways to use antiseptics. Many critics accused him of chopping and changing because his methods did not work.
Pasteur's idea of germs causing disease was still not accepted by everyone - the idea of invisible microbes causing harm seemed silly. One surgeon joked that the door of the operating theatre should be kept closed in case one of Mr Lister's microbes flew in.
Many surgeons who tried Lister's methods did not take as much care. Parts of a wound were not covered with carbolic. When patients continued to die, the surgeons said the method did not work instead of looking at their own careless use of it.
Lister did not have Pasteur's gift of showmanship. He was cold and distant. This made it hard to convince other surgeons of his methods.
Many surgeons could not get out of the habit of working at speed. This was how they judged themselves - how quick can I take off a leg? Antiseptic methods slowed down the operation and took away some of the drama of surgery.
132
Robert Liston was the first person to use what?
Robert Liston was the first person to use ether
133
In how many seconds could Robert Liston perform an amputation?
Robert Liston could perform an amputation in 26 seconds, with the patient surviving.
134
What did stretcher bearers find difficult, in terms of movement?
Stretcher bearers found it hard to move around corners
They also found it difficult to go through mud
