Weeks 7-8 Flashcards
When did the larynx change location?
300,000 years ago
What was a consequence of the change in larynx location?
Greater speech sounds, but also greater vulnerability to choking
What side of the brain is language processed on for most people (~95%)?
Left side (lateralization)
What part of language processing is the right hemisphere involved in?
Narrative speech, map-reading, prosody
How many languages currently exist?
6,000 (80% are undocumented, 90% doomed to be extinct in the coming century)
According to National Geographic Society, how often does a language die?
Every 14 days
What are the two types of aphasias?
Broca’s aphasia
Wernicke’s aphasia
What is a frequent cause of aphasia?
Left-sided MCA strokes
Broca’s aphasia
Expressive aphasia, generally aware of deficits, difficulty with speech production but not comprehension
Wernicke’s aphasia
Receptive aphasia, usually unaware, impaired comprehension (cannot comprehend or integrate, often responds with sort of word salad)
Where is Broca’s area located?
Frontal lobe, motor area
Where is Wernicke’s area located?
Temporal lobe, auditory cortex
What are the 3 stages of learning?
Sensory, short-term, long-term
How quickly does sensory information get processed?
<1 second
How quickly does short-term memory get processed?
<1 minute
How many things can you remember at a time?
7 +/- 2
How do you support your short-term memory?
Repitition or chunking
What is a form of converting short-term memories into long-term memories?
Consolidation
What are the 4 types of learning?
Stimulus-response
Motor learning (driving a car)
Perceptual learning
Observational learning
What types of conditioning are involved in stimulus-response learning?
Classical and operant (positive/negative reinforcement)
What parts of the brain are involved in classical conditioning (in stimulus-response learning)?
Amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus
What pathways/systems in the brain support learning?
Mesolimbic and mesocortical systems
In motor learning, what parts of the brain helps move the action from conscious to unconscious?
Basal ganglia (motor)
Observational learning occurs via….
Operant conditioning and vicarious conditioning
What are some examples of perceptual learning?
Attribution bias and confirmation bias (we’ve learned through repeated exposure)
Where are mirror neurons concentrated?
PFC and around the amygdala
What makes us more likely to model the behaviors we see?
Positive perception, shared (perceived) traits, stand out, familiarity, self-efficacy in mimicry
What are mirror neurons thought to enable?
Empathy
Skill building through mimicry
Vicarious experiences
(essential for social interaction, lower number in psychopathy and ASD)
Evidence exists for what types of learning?
Spaced learning, interleaving, writing rather than typing, studying in natural light, power naps, context-dependent learning
What are the 2 types of memory within long-term memory?
Implicit and explicit
What is a type of implicit memory?
Procedural memory
Explicit memory is made up of…
Declarative memory which is broken up into episodic memory and semantic memory
Describe the case of HM
Removed hippocampus and amygdala due to severe epilepsy; removal reduced seizures and increased IQ score slightly but had severe amnesia, no memory from the past, could learn new things but each day he would say “Today I woke for the first time” (implicit preserved, explicit was not)
Difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?
Anterograde = impaired capacity for new learning, failure in explicit learning
Retrograde = loss of information that was acquired before the onset, failure of implicit memory
Which conditions show hippocampal volume loss?
Alzheimer’s disease, depression, childhood stress, ETOH, PTSD, Borderline Personality Disorder
When does long-term memory peak?
Age 8
Is storage of memory permanent?
Every time you retrieve a memory, there is some adaptation plus with heightened emotions, memories are often altered
Names for strokes (2)
Infarcts (tissue death due to stroke)
Cardiovascular accident (CVA)
Risk factors for CVDs
Hypertension
Diabetes
Smoking
Obstructive sleep apnea
Obesity
What are the 3 types of stroke?
Ischemic
Hemorrhagic
Transient ischemic stroke (TIA)
What is the cause of cell death in ischemic stroke?
Excessive amounts of glutamate (glutamate exotoxicity)
What are the two possible causes of an ischemic stroke?
thrombus (blood clot) or embolus (piece of material breaks off and is carried through the bloodstream until it reaches an artery too small to pass)
What are the non-modifiable stroke risk factors?
Age
Race
Family history
What is the system that provides over 80% of oxygenated blood to the cerebrum?
Circle of Willis
What are the 3 main vessels that the internal carotid artery perfuses?
Anterior cerebral artery (ACA)
Middle cerebral artery (MCA)
Posterior cerebral artery (PCA)
MCA stroke make up how many (%) of strokes?
90%
Deficits of ACA versus MCA strokes
ACA strokes affect lower extremities (contralateral) whereas MCA strokes affect upper extremities and face (contralateral)
What do PCA strokes affect?
Consciousness
Nausea
Ataxia
Vision changes
What are AVMS?
Arteriovenous malformations–another way to develop a stroke (1-2% of strokes)
Psychiatric considerations for stroke
Depression, GAD, SOME psychosis (rare)
BE FAST
Balance, eyes, face, arms, speech, time
What is the breakdown of cellular fluid?
2/3 intracellular, 1/3 extracellular
What are the 2 types of extracellular fluid?
Intravascular (blood plasma)
Interstitial (fluid that bathes the cells)
What is tonicity?
the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water via osmosis (relationship between interstitial and intercellular)
What is hypertonic?
When you’re “hyper” you are putting a lot of energy out there–water is moving OUT of the cell
What are the 2 types of thirst?
Osmometric thirst (cell dehydration)
Volumetric thirst (intravascular blood plasma volume decreases)
What is responsible for osometric thirst control?
Osmoreceptors
Where are osmoreceptors located?
Lamina terminalis
What are osmoreceptors?
a neuron that detects changes in solute concentration of interstitial fluid
What part of the brain is activated by thirst?
Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
What is part of the natural process of dying?
Cell dehydration
What is the delay in the negative feedback loop of satiety?
20 minutes
What is the hormone released that stimulates eating behaviors/hunger?
Ghrelin
What is caused by excessive levels of ghrelin?
Prader-Willi Syndrome (genetic disorder where they never feel satiated)
What are the 2 parts of the hypothalamus activated by ghrelin?
Lateral hypothalamus
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Ghrelin and cortisol levels
High Ghrelin increases cortisol
Low Ghrelin decreases cortisol leading to reduced stress/anxiety (mechanism behind stress eating)
What type of neurons does ghrelin activate?
Orexin producing neurons
How is obesity defined?
BMI >30
What brain pattern is bulimia nervosa associated with?
Decreased blood flow to the precuneus
What is the overlap between brain injury and PTSD?
Inflammation
What are microbes?
Bacteria
Archaea
Fungi
Protists
Viruses
Phages
Microscopic animals
Alpha versus beta diversity?
Alpha = how many species are present in a single individual (and how evenly they are represented)
Beta = difference in diversity BETWEEN two samples
Urban living leads to ____ diversity in microbes/microbiome
Less
What is the “old friends” hypothesis
Increases in chronic inflammatory disorders in high-income countries is thought to be failing immunoregulation, attributable to reduced exposure to the microbial environment within which the mammalian immune system co-evolved
What is the nerve responsible for gut/brain direct line of communication?
Vagus nerve
What is the leading cause of disability in adults?
Stroke
What is the basic definition of stroke?
Interruption of normal blood flow to the brain
Why do people lose consciousness with subarachnoid hemorrhages?
“percussive” blood pressure impact of the hemorrhage increases and intracranial pressure and reduces cerebral perfusion pressure
What is the Hunt-Hess and Fisher scale?
Comatose grading and what it means in terms of outcomes
Grade I versus grade V on Hunt and Hess scale
Grade I = asymptomatic or minimal headache and slight nuchal rigidity
Grade V = deep coma, decerebrate rigidity, moribund appearance
Symptoms of MCA syndrome?
Contralateral weakness
Contralateral cortical sensory loss
Homonymous hemianopsia or quadrantanopsia
Gaze preference
Dysphagia
What is neglect?
Failure to attend to, respond to, and/or report stimulation that is introduced contralateral to the lesion
What is a negative functional outcome predictor in stroke cases?
Persistent neglect
Apraxia
Loss of ability to execute skilled or learned movement patterns on command
Agnosia
Acquired inability to associate a perceived unimodal stimulus (i.e., visual, auditory, tactile) with meaning, disorder of recognition (NOT naming)
What are the two types of TBI?
Closed and penetrating
What are two parts of a closed TBI?
Coup contrecoup
Diffuse axonal injury
What is a part of the recovery process of TBI?
post-traumatic amnesia (PTA)
What kind of curve/relationship does TBI recovery show?
Dose response relationship
What are some non-injury risk factors that influence TBI outcomes?
Pre-injury psychiatric status
Age at injury
Level of educaiton
Stable employment (6months pre-injury)
Marital status (proxy for social support)
Other physical injuries sustained during accident
What are 2 classification systems for TBI?
Glasgow coma scale (GCS)
Rancho Los Amigos Scale Revised (RLAS-R)
What does GCS look at/assess?
Eye response, motor response, verbal response
What does the Rancho Los Amigos Scale Revised assess?
How much assistance the individual requires and how they are responding behaviorally (level of agitation)
What is level 4 on the Rancho Los Amigos Scale Revised?
Confused/agitated (needing maximal assistance)
How long does it take for cognitive changes to resolve after mild TBI?
Weeks to 3 months (at most)
How long do changes persist after moderate-severe TBI?
> 2years
