Week2 Flashcards
One of the founders of humanistic psychology, with his theory of motivation based on this equally famous pictorial representation of motives…
Abraham Maslow
Hierarchy of Needs
The bottom of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is ____
Physiological needs
(oxygen, water, food, shelter, sleep, sex, clothing)
If these needs aren’t met, the body can’t function optimally. Maslow considered this level the most important (until met), and the other levels stayed secondary.
The 2nd level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
(2nd from the bottom)
Safety Needs
(personal security, order, law, freedom from fear, protection from the elements, employment, health, property, money)
The 3rd level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
(3rd from the bottom)
Love & Belonging
(friendship, intimacy, family, sense of connection, acceptance, trust, receiving and giving affection, being part of family, friends, work)
The 4th level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
(4th from the bottom)
Esteem for oneself: self-worth, accomplishment, & respect
(respect, dignity, independence, self-esteem, confidence, status, recognition, strength, freedom, need for achievement and respect, basically)
most important for children/teens
- a way to acquire esteem is to improve status (a fundamental human need). Status is associated with subjective well-being, self-esteem, physical & mental health. And subjective well-being has consistently been linked to how we felt respected by others (it’s independent of belongingness). We readily identify cues to status & actively engage in improving status
What strong observations support the necessity for work in our lives?
- Status can be acquired through work.
-
Esteem is tied to being employed
(even having a low quality job is associated with higher life satisfaction)
Other things: - provides predictable structure
- brings us in contact with others
- linked to goals
- keeps us active
- goals may provide steps to transcendence
The 5th level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
(peak of the triangle)
Self-Actualization
(desire to become the most that one can be. Full potential. Can’t do this level until the bottom 4 levels are met)
This key gland in the brain is responsible for cues for appetite & hunger
Hypothalamus
(monitors when we are hungry, eating, and full)
These two hormones are key to engaging our appetite AND for sending signals that we are full and to stop eating
ghrelin (appetite/hunger hormone)
CKK (slows down eating behaviour)
Researchers have found that viewing images of food activates the brain’s ____ using more brain energy and making us hungrier.
Reward Centre
According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, the need to be accepted and to avoid isolation are elements of ____ needs.
Belonging & Love
which behaviour can be considered instinctual for human infants?
Rooting and Sucking
What is arousal theory
focuses on finding the right level of stimulation
‘When asked why he wanted to climb Mt Everest, George replied “Because it is there”. With respect to theories of motivation, this best exemplifies arousal theory
not instinct theory or drive-reduction or hierarchy of needs
What is considered the building block of human sexual behaviour?
Hormones
(estrogen/testosterone)
William Masters & Virginia Johnson (1960s) did ground-breaking studies on sexual behaviour and dysfunction and set these **4 steps **to sex:
- Excitement
- Plateau
- Orgasm
- Resolution
This generation has spent their entire teens with smart phones and born after 1995….
i-generation
Define motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs our behaviour towards a goal
What are considered ‘grand theories’ of motivation?
all-encompassing theories that try to explain the full range of human motivated action
1 of 4 Grand Theories of Motivation
List the key characteristics of instinct theories
instincts = unlearned + automatic
- behaviour is explained in terms of instincts (complex behaviours that are unlearned but rigid patterns throughout the species)
- we’ve inherited them for survival
ex: the Moro Reflex by babies if they feel they are falling
FELL OUT OF FAVOUR eventually b/c didn’t explain the WHY
Name 2 early psychologists who proposed taxonomies of instincts:
- William James (1842-1910) - father of American Psychology - newborn suckling, biting, locomotion, imitation, play, cleanliness, parental love
- William McDougal (1872-1938) - behaviour governed by fleeing, fighting, repulsion, curiousity, etc.
2nd of 4 Grand Theories of Motivation
What are the key charactistics of Drive Theories
and the psychologist who proposed it?
- physiological needs were the source of motivation
- ex: physiological need creates a tension (a drive) so we need to resolve it to get back to homeostasis
- ex: hungry, hunger (the tension, eat
E=likelihood animal will do behaviour
H=how many times habit is done
D=strength of drive (how deprived)
K=Incentive, attractiveness of goal
Clark L Hull —> Drive Reduction Theory E = H x D x K
He studied animal behaviours in labs
Drives & Incentives
What’s the difference?
- Drives = pushed to do things
- Incentives= pulled to resolve things
Drives + Incentives= high motivation to complete behaviour (hungry + smell of bread)
Why did drive theories fall out of favour?
- That motives come from only physiological deficits could be argued (ppl with anorexia with clear deficit do not eat)
- That drive provides the force for the behavior (but ppl become hungry/thirsty when food is presented)
- That drive reduction was reinforcing and fostered learning (countered by rats figuring out a maze by wandering, instead of always treats)
3 of 4 Grand Theories of Motivation
What are the key characteristics of Incentive-Hedonistic Theories?
- emphasizes incentives
- we want stimuli that give pleasure
- we avoid stimuli that give pain
- Focus? motivation comes from environment (not our biology)
4 of 4 Grand Theories of Motivation
What are the key characteristics of Arousal Theories?
- also in 1960’s, drive theories going down, could arousal spawn motivation?
- over-aroused/under-aroused: avoid
- Most pleasure/best performance occurs when there is a middle-ground of arousal
- we are motivated by seeking environments that have this middle-ground
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Eventually, all Grand Theories of Motivation fell out of favour.
Why?
- New psychologists saw humans as constantly motivated and in motion (not passive beings that were moved about by external/internal forces)
- cognitive revolution - mental lives also shape motivations, not just simple behaviours
- Real-world behaviour was studied, not just controlled lab studies
Mini-theories focus on one aspect or subset of our motivations. There are two scientists who proposed/studied….
- David McClelland - we have 1 of 3 specific motives: achievement, affiliation, power. Not inherent but develop them through culture and life.
- Edwin A. Locke - high goals leads to high performance
Motivation Need Theory
Difference between content & process theories of motivation?
- Content - what motivates ppl (McClelland’s theory)
- Process - how motivation occurs
(Locke’s theory - setting goals )
Maslow very influential theory proposed we are motivated…
By a hierarchy of needs
This would be a ‘content’ theory (what motivates us)
Maslow distinguished between Deficiency and Being needs.
- Deficiency Needs = lack of something, motivation decreases if not met, focus is on avoiding failure (physiological, safety, belonging, esteem) Generates tension and neg. emotions that motivate us to fulfill.
- Being Needs = grow towards something and motivation increases if these are met; focus on achieving success (self-actualization, self-transcendence) Generate pos. emotions that motivate us to pursure more that give us well-being
How did Maslow define how these needs should be met?
the layers had to be met, bottom to top, in order for the next level to be unlocked. This strict order has been disputed over the years, as people who live in extreme poverty are still able to make lovable connections.
Maslow estimated that we satisfy the following:
* 85% physiological
* 70% safety needs
* 50% belongingness
* 40% self-esteem
* 10% self-actualization
society and personal preference play huge roles in how these levels are attained.
also, Maslow knew that any behaviour is motivated by many things, not just a singular reason.
also, not every places the same importance on the same needs as others
1. short-term appetite
How does the hypothalmus and hormones regulate this appetite?
What is the glucostatic model of short-term appetite?
- stomach contractions (growling) indicates hunger
- Glucostatic Model: levels of glucose critical to regulation (low–> hunger, high–> less hunger)
- Hypothalamus: response/regulates
Cannon & Washburn (1912) studied hunger
1. short-term appetite
When does the lateral hypothalamus get activated? What hormone does it release?
- Sugar drops. Stomach contracts.
- Ghrelin is released.
- LatHypo is stimulated.
- Orexin is released (will make any organism hungry!)
Destroy this LatHypo part of the brain, and hunger is destroyed.
1. short-term appetite
When does the ventromedial hypothalamus get activated? What hormone is released?
- Sugar rises. Stomach expands.
- CCK (cholecystokinin is released)
- VentroHypo is stimulated
- We feel full.
Any animal will stop eating if this ventroHypo is stimulated. If destroyed though, animal will over-eat.
Explain these hormones in short-term appetite:
2 Long-term Energy Balance:
What is the lipostatic model?
How is this related to ‘set point’ theory?
fat levels are critical to long-term regulation of appetite
Fat levels fall, hunger increases (and vice-versa)
Set-Point Theory: we have a genetically set weight point that the body likes. Decreases metabolic rate and increases hunger if we go below the set-point (and vice-versa)
Most researchers prefer ‘settling point’: weight we settle upon naturally with intake/outtake
Note: lipostatic & set-point models reflect long-term factors that regulate bodyweight, food intake, energy usage
Note: metabolic rate & fat levels also are genetics!
3 Social/cultural/enviro influences
what are two eating disorders?
- Anorexia Nervosa
- Bulimia Nervosa
Could be a genetic component, cultural component (higher in Western countries),
3 social/cultural/enviro influences:
How does biology influence taste preferences?
How does culture do the same?
- We crave sugar (high in calories) & salt (necessary for salt) because of evolution
- Cultural difference influence the meat and fruit and dinners we eat
Hunger Motivation: bio + psych + socio/cultural
3 social/cultural/enviro influences:
How does ecological factors influence eating?
How does sociocultural factors influence eating?
- Ecological: eat more with friends and also have unit bias – fill up any size plate with food that will fill it
-
Social/Cultural:
1st, modern activities encourage being lazier (tv’s –> discourage activity).
2nd, Food portions have also become larger - 200-300 calories more per day than 1970’s).
3rd, sleep loss leads to lower levels of leptin which lowers metabolism, and higher levels of ghrelin, which stimulates appetite.
4th, social influence too, because obese ppl tend to socialise with other obese ppl
What is BMI?
what is overweight? what is obese? (the numbers)
body mass index
Obese: BMI over 30
List some potential health, socioeconomic, & psychological consequences of obesity?
- Diabetes, heart attacks, high blood pressure, arthritis, cancer, reduced life expectancy
- Stereotyped as lazy, slow, dumb, unfriendly, mean, insincere, make on average $7000 less per year.
- Psychological well-being is lower, more depression, more anxiety
Note: there are multiple genes that have been identified to affect body weight, such as the FTO gene (doubles the risk)
However, no single gene causes obesity
Weight is VERY influenced by resting metabolic rate & how these rates respond to excess & starvation.
What are some good steps to losing weight though?
- Starting is only good if self-motivated & self-disciplined
- Minimize exposure to tempting foods
- Boost metabolism throughout the day (sleep more, walk, exercise, get rid of the TV,…)
- Healthy foods
- Don’t starve yourself
- Don’t binge
Difference between traditional model & the cyclical model of sex?
- Traditional: Masters & Johnson (1966) studied people and came up with Sexual Response Cycle (Excitement,Plateau,Orgasm,Resolution)
- Cyclical: Rosemary Basson challenged this simplistic view. Emotional intimacy makes one more receptive to sexual stimuli, which then leads to sex, in a cycle
Which hormones are involved in sexual desire (men)?
Hormones influence, but not solely determine sex drive & behaviour
testosterone (energy, vitality, sexual desire)
Provera, a drug, counteracts this hormone, which then reduces sexual desire
Which hormones are involved in sexual desire (women)?
estradiol
as well as testosterone
women prefer masculine faces, bodies, voices during late follicular phase (estrogen peaks)
women prefer less in the luteal phase (progesterone high)
Ovulary Shift Hypothesis : get masculine men in 1st half to pass on genes. Get less masculine men in 2nd half b/c they’ll be better with partner and baby
Summary table for Analysis for Sex
What is meant by Sexual Orientation?
Enduring sexual attraction
homosexual orientation, heterosexual orientation, bisexual orientation.
a ‘continuum’
Think, prenatal environment:
What are some possible biological determinants of sexual orientation?
- certain genes have been implicated in homosexuality, there is no single gene
- of 477,522 individuals who reported, only 8-25% accounted for same-sex behaviour
- it is highly complex
- rather, it is many loci with small effects, spread across the whole genome that contributes to same-sex behavour
- differences in circulating testosterone levels, it is hypothesized, that result in sexual orientation (once the SRY gene on the Y chromosome on the male part initiate development of the testes at 7-8 weeks. Then testosterone production begines
- there have been studies on how manipulation of early hormonal environments can greatly influence neural & behavioural sex differentiation of many mammals
- Individual differences in exposure to androgens in the prenatal environment may influence sex developemnt fo the brain!
What is the difference between congenital adrenal hyperplasia & androgen insensitivity syndrome?
- CAH: overproduction of adrenal androgens. in female fetuses, this causes high testosterone levels. Can be treated post-birth.
- AIS : inability of androgen receptors to respond to androgens (including testosterone). In complete AIS, external genitalia has not developed and XY individual has been raised as such, then diagnosed at puberty when no period begins. XY does not differ from XX (both attracted to men) probably b/c XY was raised as a girl. but 39%-64% with AIS subsequently choose to live as men – developed male characteristics or b/c there are significant advantages to being male in their culture..?
Neuroanatomical & functional differences with ppl of different sexual orientations?
- highly disputed, although some neuroanatomical differences have been noted
-gay men/straight women have similar brain hemisphere sizes, but lesbians/straight men have slightly larger R hemispheres.
Also a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus is larger in straight men than in women/gay men - Functional: gays & lesbians have less spatial abilities. Women/gay men remember locations of objects much better.
- Biological : 20% of gay men have counterclockwise hair whorls. 40% of gay men likely to be left-handed
What is meant by fraternal birth-order?
Homosexuality increasing as older brothers increase (only of R handed men)
Effect of prenatal causes (not of social factors).
Mechanism? Each time pregnant with a male, antibodies are made that prevent brain from developing in the ‘male-typical’ pattern. In an evolutionary perspective, gay older siblings could help the mother with child-rearing (more ‘affiliative’), the more offspring there was.
Environmental factors (epigenetic influences) may alter the expression of genes and thus, the characteristics these genes code for (gene expression_
Study has been replicated)
Are there any social causes of sexual orientation?
No. None have been identified
Define supernormal stimulus?
exaggerated versions of stimuli that excites us (cultural)
What strong observations support Maslow’s ‘Love & Belonging’ level?
- Being in groups (sport teams, work groups)
- Formation of Social Bonds (+)(for childbirth, for new employment, fraternities, churches)
- Dissolution of Social Bonds (-)(deaths, divorces, team breakup, job leaving)
- Lack of Group Support (leads to mental health issues, such as PTSD in veterans)
- Having Social Supports (better mental health, happiness, better health, longer life, reduced stress, better immune)
What are two things that must be met in order to fulfill this ‘Love & Belonging’ level?
- Frequent personal contact OR interactions with other people
- Interpersonal Bonds OR relationship marked by stability, affective concern and continuity
ex: housewife connected to husband, but still lonely b/c no connection to community
ex: prostitute connected to community with clients, but lonely b/c no boyfriend
Evolutionary Perspective: name a few reasons why we have this ‘Need to Belong’ in a group?
Forming relationships with others helps to fulfill a number of basic human needs:
1. grow food
2. find food
3. protection
4. make and care for offsping
5. find mates
What is achievement motivation?
Desire for significant accomplishment (mastery of tasks, people, or ideas, attaining a high standard)
Personal characteristics of ppl with this:
1. prefer moderately challenging activities
2. activities they are responsible for
3. feedback is available for their performance
how to foster achievement motivation in children?
What are some benefits of this teaching?
- Independence Training (ex: strict toilet training)
- Setting Challenges with Realistic outcomes (attainable, acknowledge failures, celebrate success, effort over actual ability)
- Secure Attachment Style (parent-child trust)
Benefits:
* more proactive
* more innovative
* better daily discipline
* more ambitious, persistent, active
* as a student: know course requirements, ask prof Q’s before exams, get feedback on exams
What is the concept of ‘flow’, related to meaningful work?
employment
Ppl who enjoy their work are likely to experience ‘flow’ (completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self & time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills
a ‘calling’ - personally fulfilling & socially useful
What is the difference between Personnel Psychology & Organizational Psychology?
- Personnel: techniques that focus on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, development, making good interiviews
- Organizational: focuses on company’s influence on workers, productivity, changes, training of effective managers
What are the characteristics of Self-Actualization?
- fulfillment of one’s potential
- not perfect people
- actualize in different ways
- not any happier than others who haven’t
- enjoy a life rich in experiences (periods of ‘flow’)
NOTE: not all who live a life of self-trancendence do it for good purposes (Hitler). Want to dedicate instead to curing disease or eradicating homelessness
What are characteristics of self-transcendence?
importance of ‘meaning’?
Living for something beyond one’s self
(Maslow added this level to the triangle later in his life)
