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PYB203 > Week Two > Flashcards

Week Two Flashcards

1
Q

infancy

A

period between birth and 2 years.

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2
Q

changes in infancy

A 
- A period of rapid growth and development in a range of areas:
		• Physical
			§ Growth and motor development
		• Perceptual
		• Cognitive
			§ Memory and attention
		• Language
		• Social and Emotional
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3
Q

newborn reflexes

A

• Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary responses to stimuli
• Some are highly adaptive and necessary to survival.
• Survival reflexes are adaptive
• E.g. breathing, eye-blink, sucking
• Primitive reflexes are less adaptive and typically disappear in early infancy
• E.g. Babinski reflex (stroking the bottom of the foot), grasping reflex
These reflexes can show abnormal development if they are still present after infancy or are weak or absent during infancy.

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4
Q

infancy motor development

A

• Motor development follows two trends
• Cephalocaudal (head to tail)
Proximodistal (gain control of the centre of the body before the limbs) e.g. can sit before it can walk.

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5
Q

gross motor skills

A

Movement of large muscles of arms, legs, and torso

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6
Q

fine motor skills

A

Movement of small muscles such as fingers, toes

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7
Q

milestones

A
  • Crawling is not counted as a developmental milestone and is highly variable as some children do not crawl.
    • Usually infants can move themselves around to some degree by 7 months.
  • It is important to take milestones with a grain of salt as children do so at a different age.
    • High levels of cultural differences in development.
      • Unsure if it is a nurture issue or biological predisposition.
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8
Q

infant perception

A
  • How do we know what babies can see/perceive/know?
    • Habituation
    • Preferential looking
    • Evoked potentials
    • Operant conditioning
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9
Q

habituation

A

• Habituation
• The process of learning to be bored with a stimulus
○ After repeated presentation with the same visual stimulus, the infant becomes bored and looks away
○ If a different stimulus is presented and the infant regains interest, researchers conclude that the infant has discriminated between the two stimuli
• Habituation can be used to test for discrimination of stimuli by all the senses
• To know something is interesting we have to know it is different.
• Habituation paradigms are useful for assessing perception in infants.

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10
Q

assessing abilities

A
  • Evoked potentials
    • Researchers can assess how an infant’s brain responds to stimulation by measuring its electrical conductivity
  • Operant conditioning
    • Infants can learn to respond to a stimulus (to suck faster or slower or to turn the head) if they are reinforced for the response
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11
Q

vision

A
  • At birth, infants have vision, but lack acuity
    • Can see more clearly about 20 - 25cm
    • Objects at 6 metres as distinct as objects at 180 metres for adults
  • Improves steadily during infancy
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12
Q

visual preferences

A

• Attracted to patterns that have light-dark transitions, or contour
• Attracted to displays that are dynamic rather than static
○ Infants are drawn to highly contrasting images, but not if they are highly complex.
• Young infants prefer to look at whatever they can see well
• Around 2 or 3 months, a breakthrough begins to occur in the perception of forms
• Initially, infants from birth to 1 month old look at the outside of an object but begin to look at the interior at around 2-3 months old.

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13
Q

depth perception

A

• Gibson and Walk (1960): Classic study to examine depth perception in infants using the visual cliff
○ Tried to explore what infants knew about depth perception.
○ Created a ‘fake’ cliff whereby they placed the babies in the middle of the floor. Asked the mother to go to either the shallow or deep end of the cliff.
○ Babies went to their mothers nearly all the time on the shallow side but at around 6 months are much more reluctant if she is on the deep side.
○ Infants of around 3 months can recognise the difference between each side but do not show the same fear as older infants.
• Infants can perceive the cliff by 2 months (tend to be curious rather than fearful)

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14
Q

hearing

A
  • Basic capacities are present at birth
    • Can hear better than they can see
    • Can localise sounds
    • Can be startled by loud noises
    • Can turn toward soft sounds
    • Prefer relatively complex auditory stimuli
    • Can discriminate among sounds that differ in loudness, duration, direction, and frequency/pitch
  • Hearing is advanced quite early on and can discriminate between ‘pa’ and ‘ba’ for example.
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15
Q

infant perception: early development

A

• Sensory experience is vital in determining the organisation of the developing brain
• The visual system requires stimulation early in life to develop normally
○ Early visual deficits (i.e., congenital cataracts) can affect later visual perception
• Exposure to auditory stimulation early in life affects the architecture of the developing brain and influences auditory perception skills

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16
Q

infant cognition: Piaget’s sensorimotor stage

A
  • Sensorimotor stage
    • The world is understood through the senses and actions
    • The dominant cognitive structures are the behavioral schemes that develop through coordination of sensory information and motor responses
  • 6 substages (no need to learn the stages but be familiar with them).
  • Piaget: from French Switzerland.
  • The way that we develop is by changing the way we think over time.
  • Accomodation is where we use existing knowledge and expanding it to make new knowledge.
17
Q

substages of sensorimotor

A
  • Reflexes: (first month)
    • Reflexive reaction to internal and external stimulation
  • Primary circular reactions: (1-4 months)
    • Infants repeat actions relating to their own bodies
  • Secondary circular reactions: (4-8 months)
    • Repetitive actions involving something in the infant’s external environment
  • Coordination of secondary schemes: (8-12 months)
    • Secondary actions are coordinated in order to achieve simple goals (i.e., pushing or grasping)
  • Tertiary circular reactions: (12-18 months)
    • Experimentation; actions are repeated with variations
  • Beginning of thought : (18 months)
    • Symbolic thought permits mental representation, imitation, and recall
18
Q

object permanence

A

• Object permanence develops during the sensorimotor period
• From 4-8 months, “out of sight, out of mind”
• By 8-12 months, make the A-not-B error
• E.g. Playing with a toy, then hide it behind a box, the baby will go and find it. Do this multiple times. Later, fide it behind something else, when making A not B error the baby will continue to look behind the box.
○ They know that it continues to exist but continue to look in the place that they have found it before.
• By 1 year, A-not-B error is overcome, but continued trouble with invisible displacement
By 18 months, object permanence is mastered

19
Q

problems with Piaget’s theory

A
  • Some of the evidence relies too much on the infant’s motor skills and memory.
    • Rather than just object permanence, the child may know that it continues to exist but may not be able to go to the place or remember where is was.
  • Can also be reinforcement
    • If the mother makes a fuss about location A the baby may look there again because of the conditioning.
20
Q

development of object permanence

A

Research suggests that infants may develop at least some understanding of object permanence far earlier than Piaget believed
• By 3 months, infants appear to understand that objects have qualities that should permit them to be visible when nothing obstructs them
SEE DIAGRAM

21
Q

psychosocial development: emotions

A
  • Emerge throughout infancy
  • Earliest emotion – crying
    • Hunger, anger, pain, fussiness
  • Other emotions
    • Joy and laughter, 3 - 4 months
    • Wariness, 3 - 4 months
    • Surprise, 4 months
    • Fear, 5 - 8 months
    • More complex emotions in toddlerhood
    ○ Pride, guilt, shame.
    ○ These relate to more implicit understanding of a behavioural standard.
    ○ Need a sense of self to express these emotions.
    ○ Exert a sense of self because they can case things to happen.
22
Q

sense of self

A
  • Infants develop an implicit sense of self through their perceptions of their bodies and actions
  • In the first 2 or 3 months, infants discover they can cause things to happen
  • After 6 months, infants realise they and other people are separate beings with different perspectives, ones that can be shared
  • Around 18 months, infants recognise themselves visually as distinct individuals
23
Q

joint attention

A

Joint attention is when the child realises that the caregiver has a different perception of the world than they do.

24
Q

rouge test

A

• Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979): Rouge test
○ Therouge testis a self-recognitiontestthat identifies a human child’s ability to recognize a reflection in a mirror as his or her own. Usingrougemakeup, an experimenter surreptitiously places a dot on the nose and/or face of the child

25
Q

attachment

A
  • strong and enduring emotional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver during the infant’s first years of life
    • characterised by reciprocal affection and a shared desire to maintain physical and emotional closeness
26
Q

theories of attachment

A 
- Psychoanalytic
	• I love you because you feed me
- Learning
	• I love you because you are reinforcing
- Cognitive
	• I love you because I know you
- Ethological
	• I love you because I was born to love
27
Q

key figures in attachment

A
  • Key figures in attachment theory:
    • John Bowlby (1907-1990)
    • Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)
  • Monkeys clung to the soft mother irrespective of whether she provided food.
28
Q

phases of attachment development

A 
- Phase 1 (birth - 2 months)
	• Indiscriminate sociability
		○ Babies only care about those that can provide for their needs. 
- Phase 2 (2 - 7 months)
	• Attachments in the making
	• Increasing preference for familiar carers
- Phase 3 (7 - 24 months)
	• Specific, clear-cut attachments
	• Separation and stranger anxiety
- Phase 4 (24 months +)
Goal-coordinated partnerships
29
Q

separation anxiety

A
  • Stranger anxiety comes first
    • Once attached to a parent, a baby often becomes wary or fretful when separated from that parent
    • Separation anxiety normally appears when infants are forming their first genuine attachments, peaks between 14 and 18 months, and gradually becomes less frequent and less intense
30
Q

stranger anxiety

A
  • Once attached to a parent, a baby often experiences a wary or fretful reaction to the approach of an unfamiliar person
    • Anxious reactions to strangers become common between 8 and 10 months, continue through the first year, and gradually decline in intensity over the second year
31
Q

strange situation

A 
mary ainsworth 
	• 8 short episodes of separation and reunion
- Identified three main patterns
	• Secure attachment
	• Anxious-resistant (ambivalent) attachment
	• Anxious-avoidant attachment
- Additional category
	• Disorganised-disoriented attachment
SEE DIAGRAM
32
Q

secure attachment

A

65 - 70% of 1 year olds)
• Infant:
○ Protests parent leaving, comforted by return, uses parent as a secure base for exploration, interacts with strangers when mother is present
• Parent:
○ Responsive and sensitive to infant’s signals
• Interactional synchrony
○ When infant is aloof, parent can see that and responds accordingly.

33
Q

anxious-resistant (ambivalent)

A

(10% of 1 year olds)
• Infant:
○ Strongly protests parent leaving, ambivalent (or angry) about return, wary of strangers even when parent is present, doesn’t use parent as a secure base
○ Anxious when the parent leaves because they are worried they will never come back.
• Parent
○ Unresponsive to infant’s signals, lack of involvement

34
Q
  • Anxious-avoidant attachment (20% of 1 year olds)
A

• Infant:
○ Unresponsive to parent when present, not distressed when they leave, avoids parent on return, indifferent with strangers as with parent
• Parent:
Unresponsive or overstimulating and intrusive caregiving (e.g. playing with baby who is falling asleep)

35
Q

Disorganised/disoriented attachment

A

• Infant:
○ Confused and contradictory behaviour
• Parent:
○ Uninvolved and low in emotional signals, mixed and contradictory messages

36
Q

Bowlby and attachment

A
  • Bowlby proposed that through their interactions with caregivers, infants construct expectations about relationships in the form of internal working models
    • Securely attached children realise “I am loveable and my caregiver is trustworthy”
    ○ Others… “I am unloveable and caregivers are unpredictable”.
    ○ These patterns can be changed.
    • Cognitive representations of themselves and other people that guide the processing of social information and behavior in relationships
  • Model of self
  • Model of caregiver
37
Q

long-term effects of attachment

A
  • Bowlby proposed that through their interactions with caregivers, infants construct expectations about relationships in the form of internal working models
    • Securely attached children realise “I am loveable and my caregiver is trustworthy”
    ○ Others… “I am unloveable and caregivers are unpredictable”.
    ○ These patterns can be changed.
    • Cognitive representations of themselves and other people that guide the processing of social information and behavior in relationships
  • Model of self
  • Model of caregiver
38
Q

preferential lookin

A

present infant with 2 stimuli, measure the time they look at each. if they look at one more they can understand that it is different.

PYB203 (10 decks)

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