Week Ten

Question 1

adulthood

Answer 1

• A far more diverse stage that the others.
  
  • Hard to study as it is characterised by such diversity.
    ○ Adults are highly variable.
    Not thoroughly studied.

Question 2

timing of event theories

Answer 2

• Individuals seek to match internalised perceptions of their society’s normative timeline or “social clock”
• Socially, we have an idea of the time when things should occur.
• Emphasises the importance of the developmental context
• Leads to ideas about whether individuals are early, on-time, or late and a sense of “age-appropriate” behaviours

Question 3

social clock

Answer 3

ocial clock
• On time – following the social timetable
• Off time – out of phase with peers
• Timing of events theories
• Describe and explain patterns of behaviour
• Explain diversity among groups
• Cultural and generational differences reflect different expectations

Question 4

normative crisis theories

Answer 4

• Individuals progress and develop in response to inbuilt/innate inner crises
○ Less dependent on social influences.
○ Rather about development as a result of crises faced throughout the life.
• Examples include:
• Erikson
• George Valliant
• Allan Levinson

Question 5

erikson on intimacy

Answer 5

• “the capacity to commit (oneself) to concrete affiliations and partnerships and to develop the ethical strenght to abide by such commitments even though they may call for significant sacrifices and compromises” (Erikson, 1963)
  
  • We cannot do this if we do not know who we are and what we stand for
  • Identity is a necessary prerequisite

Question 6

erikson’s intimacy vs isolation

Answer 6

• Development of stable identity (from prior Identity vs Role Confusion stage) necessary prerequisite
  
  • Intimacy prior to proper identity formation may lead to identity loss
    
    • Thus, identity is a precursor of intimacy.
  • Avoidance of intimacy leads to isolation and self-absorption
  • Development of ability to establish intimacy requires ability to empathise with others

Question 7

generativity vs stagnation

Answer 7

• Developing a concern and nurturance for next generation
  * Personal legacy
  
  • Most important task in middle adulthood
  • Link between generativity and well-being stronger for women than men
    
    • Personal legacy and nurturing particularly important for the mental wellbeing of women.

Question 8

experiences that help resolution of generativity vs stagnation

Answer 8

• Experiences that help resolution of generativity vs stagnation:
• Parenthood and Grandparenthood
• Professions that have potential to help next generation and beyond
• Can also be through the contributions of their career.
§ Taking on mentoring roles etc.
§ Or only taking on jobs that will make a difference.

Question 9

normative crisis theory: Vaillant

Answer 9

• George Vaillant (1934-)
• Theory based on the results of the Harvard “Grant study”
  
  • Longitudinal study started in 1937 with over 200 white male Harvard students
  • Recruited from graduating class at Harvard in 41 etc.
  • Met with them around once or twice a year and took data.
    
    • Included measurements of the skull etc.
    • Essentially asked what makes people happy.
• Key conclusions from the Harvard “Grant study”
  
  • Development is lifelong
  • Basically follows Eriksonian structure with added element of career consolidation
  • The nature of sustained relationships shape lives more than isolated events (even those that are traumatic and/or unexpected)
    
    • I.E. a continuingly abusive parental relationship is more influential than losing a parent at a young age.
  • Adaptive mechanisms/coping styles used to deal with life events determine mental health
    
    • A third of the participants developed some kind of mental illness throughout the study.

Question 10

adaptive mechanisms

Answer 10

mature mechanisms

immature mechanisms

Question 11

mature mechanisms

Answer 11

• These people were happier in later life.
  * Altrusism, humour, anticipation (participating what may go wrong and when this bad period will end), sublimination (turn emotional distress into a healthy resource).
  * Engaging these mechanisms was increased relative to age and related to sustaining relationships.
  
  • Preferenced increasingly over immature mechanisms with age
  • Sustained and loving relationships

Question 12

immature mechanisms

Answer 12

• Perpetual boys (maintained use of immature mechanisms- acting out, passive aggression, hypochondria, fantasy.)
  
  • Problems with identity and intimacy

Question 13

normative crisis theory: Levinson

Answer 13

• Biographical model- 40 subjects (age 35-45)
• Found 3 eras or seasons
• Individuals alternate between stable and transitional phases
• Formation, review and reconstitution of “life structures” (work, relationships, leisure)
• Transition phase may be prompted by an unrealised goal
Idea that throughout adulthood we form, review and change.

Question 14

stages in Levinson’s theory

Answer 14

early adulthood transition
midlife transition
late adult transition
SEE DIAGRAM

Question 15

• Era of Early Adulthood

Answer 15

(17-45)
	• Dream of adult accomplishment, forming what the dream is. 
	• Forming mentor relationships
	• Developing an occupation
Establishing intimate relationships

Question 16

Era of middle adulthood

Answer 16

(40-65)
• Coming to terms with unfulfilled dream and revising the dream.
• Dream of adult accomplishment revised

Question 17

criticisms of theories

Answer 17

• Generally based on middle class white male samples (limited application to females)
• However, were representative of what they wished to study, that is, how successful people progress.
  
  • Although both Levinson and Vaillant later studied female samples they were trying to impose a theoretical frame developed with a male sample
• Product of their time and are increasingly not applicable to rapidly changing social climate

Question 18

relationships in adulthood

Answer 18

• Romantic relationships
• Family relationships (the Family Lifecycle)
• Arousal and ‘romance’ is found through activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
• Breathing increased, pupils dilated, sweating.
Same theory as when we are fearful.

Question 19

two bridges experiment

Answer 19

• Heterosexual males.
• Female researcher asked questions.
• One had to meet researcher over a stable or not stable bridge.
• Researcher gave her number at the conclusion.
• Participants that met her at the end of the fearful bridge were much more likely to call.
• The arousal experienced by fear was mistaken by participants as love.

Question 20

Sternberg’s theory of love

Answer 20

• Sternberg (1988, 2006) developed the triarchic theory of love to explain different types of love based upon the strength of the three components of passion, intimacy, and decision/commitment

Question 21

triarchic theory of love

Answer 21

• Passion
  
  • sexual attraction, romantic feelings, and excitement
• Intimacy
  
  • feelings of warmth, caring, closeness, trust, and respect in the relationship
• Decision/commitment
  
  • involves first deciding that one loves the other person and then committing to a long-term relationship

Question 22

types of love

Answer 22

• Types of love can result depending on whether each of the three dimensions of love are high or low (love can take a variety of forms)
  
  • Consummate love – high levels of passion, intimacy, and decision/commitment
  • Companionate love – high intimacy and commitment but not much passion
• Sternberg’s work suggests that relationships are likely to fare best if partners have similar balances of passion, intimacy, and decision/commitment

Question 23

adult attachment

Answer 23

• Grew out of research on infant attachment
• Attachment style applicable across the lifespan
  
  • Adult’s current view of early attachment relationships is a good predictor of current attachment style & relationship quality.
  • Distribution of attachment styles similar to infant attachment.
• Internal working models of self and other formed on the basis of parent-child interactions affect the quality of later relationships
• Infant attachment predictive but not 100% determinant of adult attachment style
• Adult relationship experiences also influential
  
  • Can potentially remedy the effects of insecure infant attachment
  • Can potentially lead to insecure attachment style if particularly negative

Question 24

attachment styles in adulthood

Answer 24

• Four attachment styles may result, according to whether the view of self is either positive or negative and the view of other people is either positive or negative
		○ Secure
		○ Preoccupied
		○ Dismissing
		○ Fearful
SEE DIAGRAM

Question 25

Elaboration of attachment styles

Answer 25

• Attachment styles can also be described in terms of two dimensions
  
  • Anxiety – extent of concern about the availability and responsiveness of partners
  • Avoidance – extent of discomfort being intimate with and depending on a partner
• Adults with a secure working model feel good about both themselves and others
  
  • They are not afraid of entering intimate relationships or of being abandoned once they do
• People with a preoccupied internal working model have a positive view of other people but feel unlovable
• Adults with a dismissing style of attachment have a positive view of self but do not trust other people and dismiss the importance of close relationships
• Adults with a fearful internal working model resemble infants with a disorganised-disoriented attachment
  
  • They take a dim view of both themselves and others and display a confusing, unpredictable mix of neediness and fear of closeness

Question 26

• Feeney, Noller & Patty (1993) – attachment and falling in love

Answer 26

• Secure
○ relationships more likely to be more affectionate, satisfying and long term
○ larger circle of friends
§ Positive view of self and others.
• Avoidant
○ more likely to have never been in love
○ relief after breakups
• Anxious-resistant (ambivalent)
○ multiple, short-lived relationships
○ surprise after breakups (less in-tune with partner)
○ more likely to have rebound relationships