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PYB203 > Week Four > Flashcards

Week Four Flashcards

1
Q

What is Psychosocial Development?

A

Psychosocial development: the development of the personality, and the acquisition of social attitudes and skills, from infancy through maturity.

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2
Q

relationships with parents

A
  • Parenting styles
    o Diana Baumrind (1971)
    o Maccoby and Martin (1983)
  • Two dimensions:
    o Acceptance-responsiveness
    § refers to the extent to which parents are supportive, sensitive to their children’s needs, and willing to provide affection and praise when their children meet their expectations
    § when the parent highl enages in praise.
    § Highly attuned to the cild’s needs
    o Demandingness-control (sometimes called permissiveness-restrictiveness)
    § refers to how much control over decisions lies with the parent rather than with the child
    § response to the child in minimal, parent is more concerned with their own emotions.
    o These dimensions can be crossed and result in the following categories.
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3
Q

basic patterns of child rearing

A
  • Dimensions of relationships can be crossed and result in the following
  • Four basic patterns of child rearing emerge from crossing the acceptance and the demandingness dimensions:
    o Authoritarian
    o Authoritative
    o Permissive
    o Uninvolved (Neglectful)
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4
Q

authoritatian parenting

A
  • High demandingness-control and low acceptance-responsiveness
    Parents impose many rules, expect strict obedience, rarely explain why the child should comply with rules, and often rely on power tactics such as physical punishment to gain compliance
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5
Q

authoritative parenting

A

o high demandingness-control and high acceptance-responsiveness
o parents set clear rules and consistently enforce them, but they also explain the rationales for their rules and restrictions, are responsive to their children’s needs and points of view, and involve their children in family decision-making

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6
Q

permissive parenting

A

o High in acceptance-responsiveness but low in demandingness-control
o Permissive parents are indulgent with few rules and few demands
They encourage children to express their feelings and impulses and rarely exert control over their behavior

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7
Q

uninvolved parenting

A
  • Low demandingness-control and low acceptance-responsiveness
    o They seem not to care much about their children and may even reject them
    o Uninvolved parents may be so overwhelmed by their own problems that they cannot devote sufficient energy to expressing love and setting and enforcing rules
    o Ignorant of the needs of the child.
    SEE DIAGRAM
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8
Q

Baumrind (1967, 1977, 1991)

A

• Children of authoritative parents were the best adjusted – cheerful, socially responsible, self-reliant, achievement oriented, and cooperative with adults and peers
• Children of authoritarian parents tended to be moody and seemingly unhappy, easily annoyed, relatively aimless, and unpleasant to be around
• Children of permissive parents were often impulsive, aggressive, self-centered, rebellious, aimless, and low in independence and achievement
Parents shift along ateories.
Rue for western individualist countries. Different for other cultures as is the outcomes.
- Authoritarian parenting shifts across time and in birth order.
Style shifts depending on the child

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9
Q

bad developmental outcomes

A

• Subsequent research has shown that the worst developmental outcomes are associated with the neglectful, uninvolved style of parenting
• Children of neglectful parents display behavioral problems such as aggression and frequent temper tantrums as early as age 3
They tend to become hostile and antisocial adolescents who abuse alcohol and drugs and get in trouble

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10
Q

parenting style variables

A
  • Parenting style varies according to
    • Cultural background
    • Specific circumstances
    • Duration of parenting
    • Birth order
    • Number of children
    • Changes and stresses in family
    • Temperament of child
  • Parenting styles are better thought of as a dimension (or spectrum) rather than categories
  • Inconsistencies between parents can lead to confusion or “playing one against the other”
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11
Q

relationships with siblings

A

• Sibling relationships typically involve both closeness and conflict
• Sibling rivalry – the spirit of competition, jealousy, and resentment between brothers and sisters – is normal
• Siblings may be motivated to compete with each other for their parents’ time and resources
• Sibling conflict is most often about possessions

• The sibling relationship is generally close and positive, even in early childhood
• Siblings have important functions in children’s development
• Siblings provide emotional support
• Older siblings often provide caregiving services for younger siblings
• Older siblings also serve as teachers
• Siblings provide social experience
• Not preparation for peers
There is often a power differential in siblings (one older).

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12
Q

only children

A 
‘Only’ children
• Sometimes stereotyped as self-centred or spoilt
• Concern that development might be adversely affected by being sole focus of parental attention
• Research suggests higher in:
	• Self-esteem
	• Positive personality
	• Achievement motivation
	• Academic success
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13
Q

relationship with peers

A
  • A peer is a social equal, someone who functions at a similar level of behavioral complexity, often someone of similar age
    • Peer relationships have developmental value
    • Peers help children learn that relationships are reciprocal
    • Peers force children to hone their social perspective-taking skills
    • Peers contribute to social-cognitive and moral development in ways that parents cannot
    • In toddlerhood, about 10% of social interactions are with peers
    • In middle childhood, about 30% of social interactions are with peers
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14
Q

peer groups

A
  • Research indicates that peer groups typically contain children of different levels of competence
    • Gender segregation – play with same-sex companions – becomes increasingly strong with age
  • Now recognised as a critical period
  • First time that children come in contact with peers outside of the family on a regular basis
  • Contact with peers comes simultaneously with cognitive development including:
    • Major advances in language development
    • Major advances in perspective-taking abilities, and hence capacity for cooperative play, prosocial behaviour (and antisocial behaviour!) increases
    • Advances in problem-solving ability means improved capacity to tackle conflict
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15
Q

development of skills

A

From infancy to early childhood, children
are also developing skills in…
— Emotion regulation (linked to attachment and parent-child relationship)
— Behaviour regulation (inhibitory control, control of aggressive impulses)
which contribute to social skills and peer
relations

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16
Q

carollee Howes

A

Peer relations of children aged 3-5 years are characterised by “growth in the social knowledge of the peer group”

17
Q

Early childhood development in peer relations

includes

A

— Conversational skill
— Cooperative and prosocial behaviour (helping, sharing, comforting etc.)
— Conflict and aggression, including problem-solving
— Shared pretend play
— Establishment of social networks
— Differences in peer status emerge
— Emergence of dominance hierarchies – power differentials within peer groups
— Friendships become more stable and meaningful
— “someone who plays with you”
— “someone who shares their toys”
— “someone who likes you”
— “someone who is kind to you”
Differing views of friendships.

18
Q

peers

A
  • Researchers study peer-group acceptance through sociometric techniques
    • Methods for determining who is liked and who is disliked in a group
    • In a sociometric survey, children in a classroom may be asked to nominate several classmates whom they like and several whom they dislike or to rate all of their classmates in terms of their desirability as companions
19
Q

categories of social status

A
  • Using sociometric techniques, children may be classified into the following categories of social status
    • Popular – well liked by most and rarely disliked
    • Rejected – rarely liked and often disliked
    • Neglected – neither liked nor disliked (isolated children who seem to be invisible to their classmates)
    • Controversial – liked by many but also disliked by many (the fun-loving child with leadership skills who also bullies peers and starts fights)
    • Average – in the middle on both the liked and disliked scales
20
Q

popularity

A
  • Popularity is affected by personal characteristics that a child typically cannot change
    • Physical attractiveness
    • Intelligence
    • Social competence (successful use of social-cognitive skills in initiating social interactions, responding positively to peers, resolving interpersonal conflicts smoothly)
    • Well-regulated emotions
21
Q

rejected

A
  • Rejected children may be characterised by the following
    • High levels of aggression
    • Tendency to social isolation, submissiveness, over-sensitivity to teasing, seen as “easy to push around”
22
Q

neglected

A
  • Neglected children may be characterised as
    • Having reasonably good social skills
    • Nonaggressive
    • Tendency to be shy, withdrawn, and unassertive
23
Q

cotroversial

A

• Controversial children often show good social skills and leadership qualities, like popular children, but they are also viewed as aggressive bullies, like many rejected children

24
Q

gender role development

A

• Biological sex
• physical characteristics that define male and female
• Gender
• the features that a society associates with or considers appropriate for men and women
• the socially constructed categories of masculine and feminine
• Gender roles
• Societal expectations of males and females
• Different from each other
• Conform to stereotypes
• Gender typing
• Process of acquiring gender-consistent behaviours

25
Q

sex differences

A
  • Children first learn to recognise sex differences through perception i.e. differentiation:
    * Female voice and female faces go together
    * Male voices go together with a male doll
    • By two years of age children have developed an expectation of what is ”typical” behaviour and attributes for women and men e.g.,
      • Are more surprised if a man puts on makeup
    • By two years children start to show consistent ‘gender labelling’ of themselves and others, but still lack an understanding of consistence and stability
    • By preschool-age and early school age, children are very focussed on what is ’girl’ and ’boy’ behaviour
26
Q

gender rigidity

A
  • Rigidity about gender stereotypes is especially high during the preschool years (around ages 4 to 7), but decreases over the primary school years
    * VERY FOCUSED ON WHAT IS FOR GIRLS AND BOYS
    * SUBJECT TO HARSH SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES
    * BOYS MORE SUBJECT THAN GIRS
    * Argument that children internalise these roles to learn them.
    • There can be social consequences for children who do not conform to gender stereotypes
27
Q

Maccoby (1998)

A
  • Maccoby (1998) suggests that children may exaggerate gender roles in order to cognitively clarify the roles
    • Once gender identities are more firmly established, children can be more flexible in thinking about what is “for girls” and what is “for boys”

• Children begin to favour same-sex playmates as early as 30 to 36 months of age
• This preference strengthens during the primary school years
• Gender segregation: separate boys’ and girls’ peer groups and greater levels of same-sex interaction
• Partly because of incompatibility between girls’ and boys’ play styles

28
Q

theories of gender-role development

A

• Biological- gender roles are adaptive,
• Learning- gender is learnt
• Social Cognitive Theory
Cognitive- we are protagonists in our own development, conform to gender roles rather than society. we choose to internalise gender roles.

PYB203 (10 decks)

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