Week 8 - Making a living - Test 2

Question 1

What is an economic system?

Answer 1

a system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources.

Question 2

What are adaptive strategies?

Answer 2

societys system of economic production for survival. (foraging, horticulture, agricultural, pastoralism)

Question 3

What is Foraging?

Answer 3

an economy and way of life-based on hunting and gathering—was humans’ only way of making a living until about 12,000 years ago, when people began experimenting with food production.

Question 4

What is hunting and gathering?

Answer 4

Geographical mobility / small group size

Flexible division of labor

Food sharing / Egalitarian societies

Question 5

What are the 2 types of plant cultivation found in nonindustrial societies?

Answer 5

horticulture and agriculture

Question 6

what is horticulture?

Answer 6

Non-intensive cultivation / simple hand tools
Small groups, oftentimes organized in villages
Flexibility of the settlement / slash and burn agriculture

Question 7

what is agriculture?

Answer 7

Intensive cultivation (requires more investment)
Larger and more permanent communities

Question 8

What is pastoralism?

Answer 8

they are people whose activities focus on such domesticated animals as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, yak, and reindeer (AKA Herders)

Way of life articulated around tending animals

High level of geographic mobility

Question 9

What is slash and burn agriculture?

Answer 9

They clear land by cutting down vegetation and burning it to enrich the soil.

Question 10

What is the Kula ring?

Answer 10

is a ceremonial exchange system conducted in the Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. It involves a complex system of visits and exchanges and was first described in the west by anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski in 1922(Trobriand islanders of papua New Guinea) . Reciprocity was one area of fundamental work done by Malinowski, and Marcel Mauss also produced some seminal observations in The Gift.

The objects exchanged in Kula are not particularly valuable in themselves, but rather serve to help forge social connections which are depended upon at various times throughout an individual’s life.

Question 11

What is potlatching?

Answer 11

A competitive feast among Indians on the North Pacific Coast of North America.
Gift-giving ceremony practiced by Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest coast

Question 12

What is the market principle of economic exhange?

Answer 12

Anonymous relationships
Rationale of maximization

Question 13

What is the redistribution principle?

Answer 13

The major exchange mode of chiefdoms, many archaic states, and some states with managed economies.

Flow of goods that transit by a ‘center’

Prestige and power comes from giving

Question 14

What is the reciprocity principal?

Answer 14

One of the three principles of exchange; governs exchange between social equals; major exchange mode in band and tribal societies.

Dominant form of economic exchange among hunter-gatherers, horticulturalists, and pastoralists

The good exchanged in only a means for negotiating social relations

Generalized
Balanced
Negative

Question 15

Under the reciprocity principal, what is generalized reciprocity?

Answer 15

someone gives to another person and expects nothing immediate in return.

Such exchanges are not primarily economic transactions but expressions of personal relationships. Most parents don’t keep accounts of all the time, money, and energy they expend on behalf of their children. They merely hope their children will respect their culture’s customs involving obligations to parents.
Based on trust

Question 16

Under the reciprocity principal, what is balanced reciprocity?

Answer 16

Characterizes exchanges between people who are more distantly related than are members of the same band or household.

In a horticultural society, for example, a man presents a gift to a distant cousin, a trading partner, or a brother-in-law.The giver expects something in return. This may not come immediately, but the social relationship will be strained if there is no eventual and more or less equivalent return gift.
Based on trust

Question 17

Under the reciprocity principal, what is negative reciprocity?

Answer 17

Exchanges in nonindustrial societies also may illustrate negative reciprocity, mainly in dealing with people beyond their social systems.

To people who live in a world of close personal relations, exchanges with outsiders are full of ambiguity and distrust. Exchange is one way of establishing friendly relations, but when trade begins, the relationship is still tentative. Initially, people want something back immediately. Just as in market economies, but without using money, they try to get the best possible immediate return for their investment.
Based on being deceitful.

Question 18

What are Cross-cultural examination of economic exhanges and distrubution?

Answer 18

The example of Kula Ring in the Trobriand Island (item exchange)

The exampe of potlatching among the Native Americans of the Northwest coast (food exchange)

Question 19

What are the similarities and differences of thse two forms of cross cultural economic changes?

Answer 19

Similarities - both are gift giving

Differences - purpose and value system. Kula ring emphasizes ongoing reciprocity and prestige, where as potlatching focuses on wealth display and social hierachy.

Question 20

Explain the ebmededness of economic relations in society. Through the examples of the Kula Ring Trobriand Island) or the bogu (north Mali)

Answer 20

Kula Ring - The Kula ring is deeply embedded in the Trobriand society’s fabric.It goes beyond mere economic transactions; it is a social institution that shapes relationships, prestige, and status.
Participants engage in Kula exchanges not just for material gain but also to establish and maintain social bonds.
The Kula ring creates a network of peaceful social relationships among stateless tribal societies, fostering economic trade and reinforcing social order.

Bogu - The bogu is deeply embedded in the Songhay society’s daily life. It operates based on mutual obligations and interdependence.
Participants engage in labor exchanges to fulfill social duties and maintain community cohesion.

In both the Kula ring and the bogu, economic relations are intricately woven into the social fabric, reflecting cultural norms, social hierarchies, and community well-being.

Question 21

What are at least 3 characteristics associated with each of the 4 main non -industrial adaptive strategies?

Answer 21

3 CHARACTERISTICS
Equal relations among hunters and gathers

Sedentism (living in one place for a long time) for horticulture and agriculture

Intensive and continuous use of land and less ecological diversity for agriculture.

FORAGING - Foragers rely on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild resources directly from their environment.
Nomadic Lifestyle: Foraging societies are often nomadic, moving in search of seasonal resources.
Small-Scale Social Groups: Foragers typically live in small, kin-based groups with egalitarian social structures.

HORTICULTURE - Small-Scale Cultivation: Horticulturalists practice small-scale farming, often using simple tools like digging sticks.
Slash-and-Burn Agriculture: They clear land by cutting down vegetation and burning it to enrich the soil.
Semi-Sedentary Lifestyle: Horticultural societies are semi-sedentary, staying in one place for longer periods.

PASTORALISM- Animal Husbandry: Pastoralists rely on raising and herding domesticated animals (such as cattle, sheep, or camels).
Seasonal Movement: They move their herds in search of grazing land.
Exchange of Livestock: Pastoral societies often engage in exchange of animals for social and economic purposes.

AGRICULTURAL - Intensive Cultivation: Agrarian societies practice intensive farming with permanent fields.
Surplus Production: They produce surpluses beyond immediate needs, supporting non-farming specialists.
Social Stratification: Agrarian states have social hierarchies, including rulers, priests, and laborers.

Question 22

Explain how these adaptive strategies are often complementary? Through the example of the Gao region in Northern Mali (horticulture, agriculture, and pastoralism)

Answer 22

Horticulture can complement pastoralism by providing additional food sources. While pastoralists rely on livestock, horticulturalists cultivate crops like grains, vegetables, and fruits.
Horticulturalists may trade surplus produce with pastoralists for meat, milk, or other animal products.
The combination of horticulture and pastoralism ensures a diversified diet and reduces dependence on a single resource.

Agriculture provides a stable food supply, which can benefit both horticulturalists and pastoralists during lean seasons.
Surplus grains and other crops can be traded with pastoralists for livestock products.
Agrarian societies often have specialized artisans (e.g., blacksmiths, potters) who create tools and goods needed by both horticulturalists and pastoralists.
The combination of agriculture and pastoralism supports a more resilient and diverse economy.

Pastoralists can benefit from horticulturalists’ surplus crops during times when grazing land is scarce.
Livestock products (meat, milk, hides) can be traded with horticulturalists for fruits, vegetables, and grains.
The combination of pastoralism and horticulture ensures a balanced diet and reduces vulnerability to environmental fluctuations3.