Week 6 - Scientific Method

Question 1

What is a definition of science

Answer 1

A branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws

Question 2

What are some flawed ways of claiming something is evidence?

Answer 2

Anecdotal- “my sisters brothers son said”
Personal testimony
Cherry picking - just pick out evidence you want to encounter

We should ask: if it’s publicly available, and what are the affiliations of the researchers (academic? Freelance? Obscure institutes)

Question 3

What does authority mean?

Answer 3

Knowledge is acquired through appeals to or statement of a respected source (expert, authority figures)

Question 4

What is intuition?

Answer 4

‘Knowledge’ is gained without intellectual effort or sensory processing (it seems right)

Question 5

What is logic/rationalism?

Answer 5

Knowledge is developed through reasoning (I think, therefore I am)

Question 6

What is observation/empiricism in acquiring knowledge?

Answer 6

Observation is a systematic data collection approach.

Empiricism is knowledge gathered through the five senses.

Question 7

What are the two forms of empiricism?

Answer 7

Naive empiricism - deny existence unless you can directly observe something (Tony Abbott’s in CO2)

Sophisticated empiricism- accept existence of concepts via indirect observation

Science combines rationalism and empiricism

Question 8

What is inductive reasoning?

Answer 8

Have a specific case, and then make a general claim based on that. From data to theory. Acknowledging a certain case is correct, therefore make a general claim for that.

Eg. All Ravens I’ve seen are black, therefore all ravens are black.

Sometimes prone to errors.

Question 9

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 9

From a general rule, and make a specific claim from that. From theory to data (prediction). The the premises are true (valid) then the conclusion is valid.
Eg. If a female animal produces milk it is a mammal. My cat produces milk. Therefore she’s a mammal.

Question 10

Define theory

Answer 10

A well developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomenon.
NOT a mere guess.
Some attempt to dismiss strong theories by suggesting that they’re simply a guess.

Question 11

What does parsimony mean?

Answer 11

A good theory is no more complex than it needs to be to explain behaviour.

Question 12

What is testability?

Answer 12

A good theory must be able to make predictions that are open to empirical refutation. ‘Anything is possible’ is scientifically useless.

Question 13

What does functional mean?

Answer 13

A good theory explains how variables relate to one another.

Question 14

What does valid mean?

Answer 14

Must make specific, testable predictions that are confirmed by observation.

Question 15

What makes a good theory?

Answer 15

Parsimony
Testability
Functional
Valid

Question 16

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 16

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if a theory is correct.

Hypothesis apply a theory to a narrow set of conditions and make predictions about the relationships among variables.

Question 17

What is the hypothetico- deductive method?

Answer 17

Observation leads to create or modify a Theory, use the theory to develop a hypothesis, design a study to test the hypothesis, perform the research.

Question 18

What is nominal fallacy?

Answer 18

Mistaking the name of a phenomenon for an explanation.
Eg Johnny fights a lot with other boys at school. Why?
Because he has an aggressive instinct.
How do we know he has an aggressive instinct? Because he fights with other boys at school.

Question 19

What is all or none bias

Answer 19

Assuming statements should be true or false.
Statements about scientific findings are probabilistic. Good theories will not explain every thing under every condition.
Eg. Climate scientists have argued that the planet is warming, but there was a reverse cold snow in North America. Does this mean global warming doesn’t exist?

Question 20

What is the similarity uniqueness paradox

Answer 20

Everything has infinite similarities and differences
Error occurs when similarities or differences become the exclusive focus:
Similarities obscure differences
Differences obscure similarities

Eg. Stereotyping occurs when genuine differences among individuals are ignored because of their similarities

Question 21

What is the Barnum statement?

Answer 21

Apparently insightful but actually barnal statements
Eg. You try to do what is right, but sometimes find that temptation is strong.
Eg handwriting of a murderer shows “two different persona”

Question 22

What are behavioural variables?

Answer 22

Any observable response of an organism

Question 23

What is a stimulus variable?

Answer 23

Environmental factors that have actual or potential effects on behavioural variables.

Question 24

What are organismic variables? (Subject variables)

Answer 24

Characteristics of an organism that can be used to classify the organism for research purposes

Question 25

What is a dependant variable?

Answer 25

A measured or observed variable
Some are directly measurable (speed force)
Not often directly measurable in psychology (constructs such as love, attention, stress)

Question 26

What’s an independent variable?

Answer 26

A variable manipulated by experimenter or controlled - not being measured
Does red cordial produce hyperactivity in children? (Need at least two IV - red cordial and non red cordial)
If there is more activity after drinking red cordial than non red cordial, then activity is dependant on colour of cordial.
In a true experiment, IV is manipulated.
In a quasi-experiment the IV cannot be manipulated or it would be unethical to do so (can’t assign people to be Maile or female)
Experiments with multiple IV are factorial experiments

Question 27

Constructs

Answer 27

Things we believe exists but can’t directly observe it.

Question 28

What’s operational definition

Answer 28

Procedures or operations That how specify how to manipulate or measure a construct
Eg does affection toward one’s partner vary with length of the relationship? How would we define affection?

Question 29

What is convergent validity?

Answer 29

Different operational definitions yield common findings

Question 30

What are control variables

Answer 30

Variables that are factors that are potential independent variables. It is known that they might affect the DV. Not of direct interest but are held constant to avoid confounding.

Question 31

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 31

Variables that are uncontrolled

Contribute to random (unexplained) error (variability) in the data

Question 32

What are two characteristics that need to be met for research to be high quality?

Answer 32

Reliability - tools used for measurement must be consistent and accurate. Synonymous with consistency. Reliability and variability are inversely related
-high variability = low reliability
-low variability = high reliability
Must be reliable to be valid
Variability not account for by an IV Reffered to as invalid

Validity - descriptions, relations and explanations (causation) must be truthful
Changes over short time interval may indicate reliability problems
Changes over long time interval may indicate real changes in variable more merely error

Question 33

What is construct validity

Answer 33

Extent to which IVs and DVs reflect and measure what they’re intended to
Are IQ tests a good measure of intelligence?

Question 34

What is face validity

Answer 34

Where the things you’re measuring (IV AND DVS) appear to reflect or measure what they are intended too. Not an important form of validity for valid research.

Question 35

What is internal validity?

Answer 35

Extent to which causal statements about the relations among variables can be made.
And example of causal conclusion- red cordial might cause hyperactivity
Observer bias: may be hyperactive, but this might be caused by environment
Confirmation bias: parent already expect to see hyperactive children and monitor them more closely

Question 36

What is external validity

Answer 36

The extent to which the findings of an experiment can be generalised . Invalid when research conclusions are limited to original settings, Sample or situation.
Can be confirmed by replication.