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Psychology > Week 6 > Flashcards

Week 6 Flashcards

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1
Q

Three basic forms of learning

A
  1. Classical conditioning
  2. Operant conditioning
  3. Observational learning
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2
Q

Reflexes

A

A mortal or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment; simpler than instincts, involve activity of specific body parts and systems, involve more primitive centers of the central nervous system.

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3
Q

Instincts

A

Innate behaviors triggered by a broader range of events such as aging and the change of seasons, more complex patterns of behavior: movement of the organism as a whole and involve higher brain centers

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4
Q

What do both reflexes and instincts help an organism with

A

They help an organism adapt to its environment and do not have to be learned

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5
Q

What do learned behaviors involve

A

They involve change and experience

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6
Q

What is learning

A

It is a relatively permanent change in behavior knowledge that results from an experience

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7
Q

What does learning involve

A

Acquiring knowledge and skills through experience, involving a complex interaction of conscious and unconscious processes

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8
Q

Associative learning

A

This occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment

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9
Q

What type of learning is Central to all three basic learning processes

A

Associative learning

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10
Q

Classical conditioning tends to involve what processes?

A

Unconscious process

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11
Q

Operant conditioning tends to involve what processes?

A

Conscious processes

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12
Q

Observational learning adds __________ and ___________ layers to all the _______ ____________ processes.

A

Observational learning adds social and cognitive layers to all the basic associative processes (both conscious and unconscious).

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13
Q

What is classical conditioning also known as

A

Pavlovian conditioning

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14
Q

What is classical conditioning

A

Organisms learn to associate events or stimuli that repeatedly happen together

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15
Q

Operant conditioning

A

The condition in which an organism learns again to associate events a behavior and its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

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16
Q

Pleasant consequences versus punishment

A

A pleasant consequence encourages more of a certain behavior in the future whereas a punishment deters the behavior

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17
Q

Observational learning extends the effect of range of both _________ and ___________ conditioning.

A

Classical and operant conditioning

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18
Q

Observational learning

A

The process of watching others and then imitating what they do

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19
Q

What type of learning largely occurs among humans and animals

A

Observational learning

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20
Q

In operant conditioning a response is associated with a ___________

A

Consequence

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21
Q

Who is best known for his extensive research on dogs and his experiments in classical conditioning

A

Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov

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22
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A process in which we learn to associate stimuli and consequently to anticipate events

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23
Q

What experiment did Pavlov establish with dogs

A

He designed a series of carefully controlled experiments to see which stimuli would cause a dog to salivate

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24
Q

What did Pavlov realize through his experiments about organisms and their responses to its environment

A

They have two types of responses who it’s environment:

  1. Unconditioned (unlearned) responses or reflexes
  2. Conditioned (learned) responses
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25
Q

What is a higher order conditioning

A
  1. Also known as a second order conditioning

2. This is when you pair a new neutral stimulus with the condition stimulus

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26
Q

In classical conditioning what is the initial period of learning known as

A

Acquisition

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27
Q

Acquisition

A

When an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and then unconditioned stimulus

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28
Q

What happens during acquisition

A

The neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response

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29
Q

What is extinction

A

The decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus

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30
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period

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31
Q

What do acquisition and extinction involve

A

The strengthening and weakening, respectively, of a learned association

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32
Q

Which two learning processes are involved in distinguishing which stimuli will trigger the learned association

A

Stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization

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33
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar

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34
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

When an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus, the opposite of stimulus discrimination

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35
Q

Classical conditioning can lead to _____________

A

Habituation

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36
Q

Habituation

A

This occurs when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. As the stimulus occurs over and over we learn not to focus our attention on it

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37
Q

Who is the founder of behaviorism

A

John B. Watson

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38
Q

What is behaviorism

A

A school of thought that arose during the first part of the 20th century, it incorporates elements of Pavlov’s classical conditioning, we’re behavior can be studied as a simple stimulus response reaction, without regard for internal processes

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39
Q

What did John B Watson argue

A

That in order for psychology to become a legitimate science it must shift its concern away from the mental processes that cannot be seen or measured and instead focus on outward observable behavior that can be measured

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40
Q

According to Watson human behavior is primarily the result of ____________ ________.

A

Conditioned response in regard to human emotions

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41
Q

What did Watson prove in his experiment of conditioning with little Albert

A

He proved that emotions could become conditioned responses, he conditioned little Albert to fear all furry things, countering Freud’s view that phobias are caused by deep hidden conflicts in the mind

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42
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences

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43
Q

In operant conditioning a pleasant consequence makes the behavior more likely to

A

Be repeated in the future

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44
Q

What is the conditioning approach for operant conditioning

A

The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment either strengthen or weaken it so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future

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45
Q

What is the conditioning approach for classical conditioning

A

An unconditioned stimulus is paired with the neutral stimulus then the neutral stimulus eventually becomes a condition stimulus which brings about the conditioned response

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46
Q

What is the stimulus timing for classical conditioning

A

The stimulus occurs immediately before the response

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47
Q

What is the stimulus timing for the operant conditioning

A

The stimulus either reinforcement or punishment occurs soon after the response

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48
Q

What did psychologist B.F. Skinner believe about learning

A

He believed that learning is a result of consequences and is based on the law of effect

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49
Q

Law of effect

A

Behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

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50
Q

Who first proposed the law of effect

A

Psychologist Edward Thorndike

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51
Q

What does positive and negative mean in operant conditioning

A

Positive means you are adding something and negative means you are taking something away

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52
Q

What does reinforcement mean in operant conditioning

A

It means you are increasing a behavior

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53
Q

What does punishment mean in operant conditioning

A

It means you are decreasing a behavior

54
Q

What part of Operant conditioning can be positive and negative

A

Reinforcement and punishment can both be either positive or negative

55
Q

All reinforcers ____________ the likelihood of a behavioral response

A

Increase

56
Q

Alll punishers ___________ the likelihood of a behavioral response

A

Decrease

57
Q

What is positive reinforcement

A

Something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior

58
Q

What is negative reinforcement

A

Something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior

59
Q

What is positive punishment

A

Something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior

60
Q

What is negative punishment

A

Something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior

61
Q

What is the most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior and operant conditioning

A

In positive reinforcement where a desirable stimulus is added to increase behavior

62
Q

What occurs in negative reinforcement

A

An undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior

63
Q

Is negative reinforcement the same as punishment in operant conditioning

A

No the two are very different mechanisms, reinforcement always increases a behavior regardless of it being negative while punishment always decreases a behavior

64
Q

What occurs in positive punishment

A

An undesirable stimulus is added to decrease a behavior

65
Q

What occurs in negative punishment

A

You remove an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior

66
Q

What is shaping

A

This is when we reward successive approximations of a target behavior, this is used instead of rewarding only with a target behavior

67
Q

Why is shaping needed

A

Because it is extremely unlikely that an organism will display anything but the simplest of behaviors spontaneously, in shaping behaviors are broken down into many small achievable steps

68
Q

What are the specific steps used in the shaping process

A
  1. Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior
  2. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior, no longer having to reinforce the previously reinforced response
  3. Begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior
  4. Continue to be enforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
  5. Only reinforce the desired behavior
69
Q

When is shaping most often used

A

In teaching a complex behavior or chain of behaviors

70
Q

What is an important part of shaping

A

Stimulus discrimination

71
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

Are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities, these kinds of reinforcers are not learned.

72
Q

What are some examples of primary reinforcers

A

Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, touch

73
Q

What qualities do some primary reinforcers share

A

They provide pleasure or/and a physical need

74
Q

Second reinforcer

A

These reinforcers have no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer

75
Q

What are some examples of secondary reinforcers

A

Praise: link to affection, money: to satisfy basic needs & only when I can be used for something, tokens that can be traded in for rewards and prizes

76
Q

What has been found to be very effective at modifying behavior in a variety of setting such as schools prisons and mental hospitals

A

Token economies

77
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Each time a organism displays a specific behavior it receives a reinforcer

78
Q

What is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior especially if training a new behavior

A

Continuous reinforcement

79
Q

How will you be most effective with continuous reinforcement

A

If you present the reinforcer immediately after the desired behavior is exhibited and they can make an association between the target behavior and the consequence

80
Q

What is partial reinforcement

A
  • This is also referred to as intermittent reinforcement

- this is when the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior

81
Q

How are partial reinforcement schedules described

A

They are either fixed or variable and as either interval or ratio

82
Q

Fixed

A

This refers to the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements which is set and unchanging

83
Q

Variable

A

This refers to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements which varies or changes

84
Q

Interval

A

Means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements

85
Q

Ratio

A

Means the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements

86
Q

Describe a fixed interval

A

Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals such as after 5, 10, 15, 20 minutes

87
Q

Describe variable interval

A

Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals such as after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes

88
Q

What is the result of a fixed interval

A

Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement

89
Q

What is the result of a variable interval

A

Moderate yet steady response rate

90
Q

Describe a fixed ratio

A

Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses such as after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses

91
Q

What is the results of a fixed ratio

A

High response rate with pauses after reinforcement

92
Q

Describe a variable ratio

A

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses such as after 1,4,5, and 9 responses

93
Q

What is the result of a variable ratio

A

High and steady response rate

94
Q

A fixed interval reinforcement schedule is when behavior is rewarded after

A

A set amount of time

95
Q

With a variable interval reinforcement schedule the person or animal gets the reinforcement based on

A

Varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable

96
Q

With a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule there are a _________ number of responses that must occur before the behaviors rewarded

A

Set

97
Q

What are fixed ratios better suited for

A

To optimize the quantity of output

98
Q

What is a fixed interval better suited for

A

In which the reward is not quantity based and can lead to a higher quality of output

99
Q

What are the number of responses needed for reward in a variable ratio reinforcement schedule

A

The number of responses varies

100
Q

Which is the most powerful partial reinforcement schedule

A

Variable ratio reinforcement

101
Q

What is a good example of a partial reinforcement with a variable ratio schedule

A

Gambling, because you can add money to a slot machine with no reward and after a while get a big reward. Because of this you continue playing but then may end up losing more than you won. But then you keep playing because you don’t know when the next reinforcement is coming

102
Q

Which addictive hobby is so resistant to Extinction, Explain.

A

Gambling, usually extinction of a reinforced behavior occurs at some point after reinforcement stops and the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule. In a variable ratio schedule the point of Extinction comes very slowly

103
Q

Which reinforcement schedule is the most productive and the most resistant to Extinction

A

Variable ratio

104
Q

Among the reinforcement schedules which is the least productive and the easiest to extinguish

A

Fixed interval

105
Q

Cognitive map

A

A mental picture of the layout of a maze

106
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it

107
Q

What is an example of an experiment involving latent learning

A

Edward C.Tolman’s experiment with hungry rats in a maze. He used 2 groups of mice. 1 that were rewarded with food at the end of the maze and other rats that had to explore the maze with no food. After 10 sessions in the maze without reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the end of the maze. As soon as the rats became aware, they were able to find their way through the maze, just as quickly as the comparison group which had been rewarded with food all along.

108
Q

Does Leyden learning occur in humans as well

A

Children may learn by watching the actions of their parents but only demonstrate it at a later date

109
Q

In Observational learning, we learn by

A

we learn by watching others and then imitating or modeling what they do or say

110
Q

What do you call the individuals performing the imitated behavior in observational learning

A

Models

111
Q

What kind of neuron does imitative learning involve

A

Mirror neuron

112
Q

What is social learning theory

A

A brand of behaviorism which takes cognitive processes into account, internal mental states must also have a role in learning and observational learning involves much more than imitation

113
Q

What are some ways that observational learning can occur

A
  1. You learn a new response
  2. You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the model
  3. You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.
114
Q

What are the three kinds of models identified in observational learning

A

Live, verbal, and symbolic

115
Q

What does a live model demonstrate

A

A behavior in person

116
Q

What does a verbal model demonstrate

A

This is an instructional model that does not perform the behavior but instead explains or describes the behavior

117
Q

How does a symbolic model demonstrate a behavior

A

A symbolic model can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, television, shows, video games, or Internet sources

118
Q

What kind of learning and modeling is used in the world of marketing and advertising

A

Latent learning and modeling

119
Q

What specific steps in the process of modeling must be followed if learning is to be successful

A

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

120
Q

In the process of modeling what must one do in the step of attention

A

You have to pay attention

121
Q

For retention what must one due

A

You must be able to retain the information you observed

122
Q

For reproduction what must one do

A

Be able to perform the behavior that you observed and committed to memory

123
Q

For motivation what must one do

A

You need to want to copy the behavior and whether or not you are motivated depends on what happened to the model

124
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A

This is when you are more motivated to copy a model because you saw that the model was reinforced for their behavior

125
Q

What is vicarious punishment

A

This is when you would be less motivated to copy the model based on your observation of the model being punished

126
Q

What kind of effects can one have by watching vicarious reinforcement and punishment

A

Prosocial and antisocial effects

127
Q

Prosocial models

A

AKA, positive models, can be used to encourage socially acceptable behavior

128
Q

Antisocial models

A

Models that show antisocial behavior such as aggressive or violent behavior

129
Q

Hendonism

A

Learning is motivated by two things seeking pleasure and avoiding pain

130
Q

Over time you will maximize the behaviors that bring ____________ and minimize the behaviors that bring _____

A

Pleasure

Pain

131
Q

What are the 2 types of associative learning

A
  1. Operant conditioning

2. Classical conditioning

Psychology (7 decks)

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