Unit 1 Flashcards
What did Plato write about in 400 BCE
Psychological topics such as what we recognize with our modern eyes as the free will vs determinism debate
Who was Hippocrates (400BCE) and what did he believe
He was a medical doctor that believed that mental illness was the result of an imbalance in bodily fluids. He would use medical practices to solve mental illness issues
What were the 2 areas of psychology that Plato and Hippocrates we’re interested in in
Plato–} Basic Topics
Hippocrates–} Applied Topics
Basic Topics
Attempts to understand ourselves and others, that’s for curiosity sake rather than to solve a problem
What are examples of basic topics
- Why am I the way I am?
- Where do my thoughts and feelings come from?
- Can people change?
- Whats my purpose?
Applied topics
A need to solve disorders through diagnosis and treatment (people’s quality of life is at stake): Schizophrenia, Bipolar, Depression, Anxiety, etc.
What philosophers wrote about Basic Topics in the 1600s
Rene Descartes : The Mind Body Problem
Thomas Hobbes : Free Will
Was psychology practiced in the 1600s
No, there was interest and it was studied, but these areas remained seperate and didn’t really have a “home”
Who wrote about Applied topics and what kind of things were written about it
- Medical Doctors
- They formed theories and wrote about their experiences with patients such as enormous variation in the presumed causes and treatment for mental disorders, including demonic possession, imprisonment, lobotomies, etc.
In the late 1800s, who’s interest led to the birth of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt
What was Wilhelm Wundt interested in
Conscious experience
How did Wilhelm Wundt study the elements of consciousness
He used the scientific method
What is the conscious experience
- Introspection: reflecting inward and providing a description of ones own experiences, it’s ongoing, reflecting mood, reflecting thoughts of future and past
- Description of the elements you perceive in real time such as sound, color, taste, etc
What did Wundt learn about taste
It’s composed of 4 elements: salty, bitter, sour, and sweet
What did Wundt’s work result in
- The creation of a new academic discipline, psychology
- He introduced empiricism, and established the scientific method and as way to study psychology
- He established psychology as a subject in which people could earn a degree
How did psychology come to the the US
Wundt’s students brought it to the US
Empiricism
a method of study relying on empirical evidence, which includes things you’ve experienced: stuff you can see and touch. Empiricism is based on facts, evidence, and research.
What did Wundt’s students establish in the US
Accredited journals and the APA; American Psychological Association
Psychology
- The scientific study of behavior and mind
- This includes both basic and applied topics
What is behavior
Directly observable activities such as work performance, laughing, talking, time spent in something, brain activity, etc.
What is the mind
Aspects of subjective experience such as sensations, thoughts, and emotions
What 2 groups of study were psychologists interested in during the late 1800s to early 1900s
- Consciousness
2. Psychometrics
Psychometrics
The science if creating tests to measure psychological things such as intelligence, disorders,etc.
What are some examples of psychometrics
- Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test (1916)
2. MMPI: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (1942)
What were the 2 branches if psychology in the early 1900s
The study of consciousness and the study of testing (psychometrics)
Who did recent medical graduate, Sigmund Freud, study under
Dr. Jean Charcot
What did Dr. Charcot and Freud study
Patients with hysteria
Hysteria
A disorder with symptoms ranging from stuttering, inability to swallow, numbness, paralysis, etc. Doctors we’re unable to find a ohysiy explanation for these symptoms
What captivated Freud’s interest and what theory did it help him create
Hysteria
The theory of psychoanalysis
What idea is Freud mist famous for
The idea of the unconscious mind
What is the unconscious mind
°The irrational part of the mind that we have no conscious awareness of
°It contains sexual urges and aggressive instincts
°It has no regard for reality and wants everything right now
Why did Freud believe psychological problems arose
Due to unconscious conflict or unmet unconscious wishes
What were some techniques used by Freud to gain access to the unconscious mind
Hypnosis, dream evaluation, free association, projective tests
What were some good f the projective tests used
Rorschach and TAT: thematic apperception test
What is the Rorschach test
a psychological test in which subjects’ perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex algorithms, or both. Some psychologists use this test to examine a person’s personality characteristics and emotional functioning
What did Freud believe about behavior and personality
•Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality were derived from the constant and unique interaction of conflicting psychological forces that operate at three different levels of awareness
What were the 3 different levels of awareness that Freud believed influenced behavior and personality
The preconscious, conscious, and unconscious
•these three systems applied to his structure of the personality, or psyche – (1) the id is regarded as entirely unconscious, (2) the ego and (3) superego have conscious, preconscious, and unconscious aspects.
How did Freud believe the 3 systems of awareness applied to his structure of personality and how does this relate to the glacier metaphor
• The personality, or psyche was regarded as follows:
(1) the id –> entirely unconscious
(2) the ego–> preconscious and conscious
(3) superego–> conscious, preconscious, and unconscious aspects.
• parts if the psyche are considered that glacier, those parts that are above the water are considered the conscious mind and those in the water are everything else (preconscious, unconscious; which was the vast majority)
What was the goal of psychoanalysis therapy
To gain access to the unconscious mind
What methods do we still use today that stem from Freud and psychoanalysis
Therapy: the talking cure, the power of insight in or becoming consciously aware, denial, etc.
What was one bizarre condition Freud believed boys suffered from
Oedipal Complex
Oedipal Complex
Boys 3-5 years developed sexual desire for and wished to be ethe primary object if their mothers love. They feared that if their father discovered this, they would be castrated. This would cause intense anxiety and conflict and a desire to eliminate their father
Why were many psychologist frustrated with Freud’s work
- Because they were unable to test his ideas, these things were invisible like the unconscious mind, consciousness itself, intelligence
- As scientist they wanted to study that which was observable to the naked eye
What did psychologists interested only in that which is observable study? What were they called? When did this branch of psychology originate?
- Behavior and Environment
- Behaviorists
- 1920s
What did behaviorists study?
The carried out meticulous experiments with animals because they could carefully control all relevant variables. They did not study humans.
What did behaviorist’s experiments lead to
The development of a variety of effective therapy techniques such as behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, systematic desensitization
What did Behaviorist’s believe
They believed in determinism, but believed that the environment determines our behavior. If our environment changes, that changes you and determines more things
What did Freud and believe
They believed in determinism affected by the unconscious mind–> the unconscious mind determines behavior
By the 1920s what were the four branches of psychology and give a brief description of each
- Wundt research: studied consciousness
- Psychometrics: those who created tests
- Freudism: psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic therapy
- Behaviorism: studied behavior and environment
What shook up the field in the 1940s and changed psychology
World War II
During WWII what did the military do and why?
Many soldiers that survived came home with “she’ll shock” so the military tried to address this issue by funding research into the different branches of psychology
What were the different branches if psychology that were funded by the military
- Basic research (Wundt)
- Psychometrics
- Psychoanalytic Therapy
- Behavioral Therapies
What kind of things did basic research do for the military
They performed a variety of experiments like test limits of vision in order to create the best camouflage for a given environment and to accurately assess war environment
What kind of things did psychometrics do for the military
They created tests that would help military screen out soldiers who had a high potential for PTSD
What kind of things did psychoanalytic therapy do for the military
They helped soldiers that were suffering from psychological trauma from traumatic experiences in the war
What kind of things did behavioral therapy do for the military
They helped soldiers suffering from psychological trauma from traumatic experiences in the war
What problem did psychologists encounter in the 1950s when the war was over
There wasn’t enough psychologists in practice to treat all those in need. The number of positions in the VA exceeded the total number of qualified psychologists nationwide at the time
How long did it take in the 1950s to become a psychologist
6 years
What was created to help treat soldiers
To create enough therapists for soldiers in need a shorter path was created for therapists in training, they were called counselors
Clinical psychologist degree, treatment, target population, example if disorders
Usually PhD, long term therapy, specialize in specific illness, Ex. OCD
Counseling degree, treatment, target population, example if disorders
Usually Masters, long and short term therapy, wide range from mild to severe illnesses, Ex. Marital conflict, career choices
Psychiatry degree, treatment, target population, example if disorders
MD, oversite of medication and dosage, hospitalized patients, does not usually provide counseling/therapy, Ex Schizophrenia
Research clinician degree, treatment, target population, example if disorders
PhD, not licensed for treatment, no population specification, no disorders
Facts about modern psychology
1) relies on science, the truth
2) eclectic: consider all theories, mist have insight to offer any problem
3) Professional structure that provides researchers and therapists of different training and backgrounds to help a variety of people
4) May not be able to cure but it can help, enrich and listen to those that need it
Free will
Believe that people are responsible for their actions
Scientific determinism
Belief in biological forces that influence their talents and personality, and environmental forces such as past environment create your current intelligence and per personality
Fatalistic determinism
Fate already has a plan for each of us
Randomness
A belief that life is unpredictable exemplified by life is hard to predict because it is almost totally random
Unobservable mental phenomenona
Concepts such as memory and intelligence
Operational definitions
- The specification of the observable and measurable conditions under which some phenomenon is said to occur
- We use events we can measureto give meaning to a concept related to a mental phenomenona
What are 2 advantages to using operational definitions
- By operationally defining psychological concepts we can be certain that all researchers who make use of the same operational definition will be studying the same thing.
- They prevent subjective impressions from influencing our observations.
What are limitations to operational definitions
- It may measure concepts in addition to the one we are trying to measure.
- A single operational definition typically cannot measure all aspects of a psychological concept.
What is an example of other concepts that could be measured with an operational definition in addition to the one we are trying to measure
When measuring the concept of knowledge by providing a multiple choice test we may also measure concepts such as test anxiety verbal comprehension reading rate distractibility and test wiseness.
Why is it that a single operational definition typically cannot measure all aspects of psychological concept
This is because psychological concepts are often complex they refer to broad range of cognitions emotions and behaviors
What are other things to consider when coming up with an operational definition
- Is the definition to casual, would it be used in a real experiment?
- Is it observable to the naked eye?
- Is it too general or too specific?
- Would there be any follow-up questions to understand what your definition is stating
What is the scientific method used for
To generate knowledge
What is one of the most important considerations when planning a study in psychology and why?
How you will observe and measure your variables because most psychological variables are invisible
Give examples of psychological variables that are invisible
Happiness, shyness, trust, attraction, shame
What is the function of an operational definition
To provide definitions that specify how variables will be observed and measured
After deciding the operational definition for the variable you want to study what would be the next step
He must decide which research method you will use to gather data
What are the different research methods available
- Descriptive research methods
2. Experiments
What are the different types of descriptive research methods
- Case studies
- Naturalistic observation
- Surveys
What is the problem with descriptive research methods
Information on the topic is limited and you cannot extract any cause and effect information between two variables
What important feature do experiments provide
They allow us to determine cause and effect
What things do you need to conduct an experiment
- Start with the hypothesis
- Determine your independent variable
- Determine the dependent variable
- Plan how the experiment will be conducted
- Randomly assign people to different levels of the independent variable
- Observe whether or not the dependent variable is affected by the independent variable
Independent variable
The cause–>It is believed to cause changes in the dependent variable, manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable
The effect–>It is believed to change in response to the independent variable, it is measured by the experimenter
To test a hypothesis we need to create at least 2 levels or conditions of what? Why?
- Of the independent variable
- We need something to compare it with to verify if the independent variable we’re evaluating actually worked or didn’t
What are the two different conditions of the independent variable called when one group is taking a medication and the other group is not
One is the treatment condition: receiving meds
The other is the control condition: receiving placebo
Can we create more than two levels or conditions for an independent variable
Yes
To test our hypothesis what must we measure
The effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
In an experiment do we let people decide which group they want to be in? Why?
No we don’t because we want to make the groups as equal as possible without any bias
What is random assignment
A technique for assigning people to experimental conditions that ensures that everyone has an equal chance of being in each group to minimize bias
Is random assignment the same as random sample
No random sample is relevant to survey research
What are some possible ways to perform random assignment
We could draw names from a hat to determine who is going to be in each group or we could flip a coin for each participant heads for the treatment group and tales for the control group
What is a placebo effect
This occurs when experimental results are caused by an expectation, beliefs influence, it determines their experience in a given situation. In other words when people expect improvement often times they improve.
How do we avoid a placebo effect when it comes to medication experiments
We could give the control group a water pill so that they have the same expectations as the treatment group
What are the pros and cons of experiments
- The pros are that they give us cause and effect explanation leading to conclusions and they allow you to create a situation rather than waiting for it to happen
- The cons are that some people criticize them because they are not always possible or ethical
What does the most basic experimental design involve
Two groups the experimental group and the control group
Experimental group
This group gets the experimental manipulation, the treatment or variable being tested
Control group
The control group does not receive the treatment or variable being tested
What two key things does an operational definition provide
- A description of how we will measure our variables
2. It will allow others to understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment
How does an operational definition help our study or experiment results
- It gives people the ability to interpret our data
2. It gives others the capacity to repeat our experiment
What is experimenter bias
The possibility that a researchers expectations my skew the results of a study
What is a single blind study
This is when a group of participants are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group
What is a double blind study
Both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments
Why would a researcher want to run a study where no one knows who is in which group
Because in this way we are able to control the expectations for both the experimenter and participant
Which variable in an experiment is controlled by the experimenter
The independent variable
What is the only difference between the experimental and control groups
The independent variable
What do researchers measure to see how the effects of an experiment are
The dependent variable
What will change as a function of the independent variable
The dependent variable
Participants
Subjects of a psychological research and individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate in the process
Random sample
A subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Why are random samples
Because if the sample is large enough we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population. Such characteristics of a sample should include sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic level, that are close to those percentages in the larger population
What is unlikely to occur with large samples and random assignments in an experiment
It is unlikely that there are systematic differences between the groups
How would our experiments be affected if the groups in the experiment were systematically different before the experiment began
We would not know the origin of any differences we find between the groups, were they pre-existing or were they caused by manipulation of the independent variable?
In the random assignment of an experiment we assume that the differences observed between the experimental and control groups result from?
Manipulation of the independent variable
What is the next step after data is collected from both experimental and control groups
The statistical analysis
What is the function of statistical analysis
It is to find if there are meaningful differences between the experimental and control groups. It determines How likely any difference is due to chance
What is the greatest strength of an experiment
It’s ability to assert that any significant differences in the findings are caused by the independent variable
What is the next step after interpreting experimental findings
The information is shared with other scientists, usually published in a peer-reviewed journal article
APA
American psychological association publishes a manual detailing how to write a paper for submission to scientific journals
What do peer reviewed journal articles target
It is aimed at the an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved in research themselves
Informed consent
A consent signed by each participant in an experiment that provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, potential risks and implications of the research, informs involvement is completely voluntary and can be discontinued without penalty at any time. The data collected will also remain confidential.
Why is deception sometimes necessary in experiments
- It is to prevent participants knowledge of the exact research from affecting the results of the study
- it involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment but not to the point where it could be considered harmful
What is debriefing
This occurs upon conclusion of the study, it encompasses complete honest information about the purpose, how data was collected and will be used, the reasons why the deception was necessary and how to obtain additional information about the study.
What committee reviews animal experimental proposals
Institutional animal Care and use committee (IACUC)
What committee reviews human participant experimental proposals
IRBs
What are case studies
A method of observation in which one person or one event is studied in depth
What information is gathered in a case study when a person is involved
Childhood events, parents, siblings, jobs, education, romantic history, criminal history, health, age, (SES) socioeconomic status
When an event is studied for a case study what information is gathered by researcher
Detailed descriptions of the event, what people were doing before and after the event occurred, how people feel affected by the event
Are case studies frequently done
No they are not. They’re usually done to learn more about something really rare such as an isolated events or evil or corrupt killers.
When are case studies useful
- When studying low base rate phenomena/things that are rare
- When you want to generate new ideas
Why are case studies criticized
When you examine one instance, one person or event, there’s almost zero generalizability and you cannot establish cause and effect
What is naturalistic observation
A method in which a researcher observes and records the behavior of people and everyday life
What is vital in naturalistic observation
That the people do not know that they are being observed because then they start acting differently or unnatural
When is naturalistic observation useful
When you want to avoid reactance. This allows a researcher to observe things that might be tainted when people know that they are being watched
What is reactance
An individual changes his or her behavior because he or she knows that he or she is being observed
Why is the naturalistic observation criticized
Because you cannot establish cause and effect
What is the survey method in psychology
A method in what your researcher gathers self-reported attitudes, opinions, emotions, or behaviors of people.
What is an important thing to consider in survey research
Ensuring that each person in the population you are studying has an equal chance of being included in your study
In survey research how can you ensure that each person in the population has an equal chance of being represented in your study
Random sample will be able to represent a population because each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the study
When are surveys useful
When you’re looking for an easy way to gather data about a lot of people
Why are surveys criticized
Because:
- Individuals may not be willing to reveal the truth about themselves or may not be able to.
- Cannot establish cause and effect
How are experiments different from descriptive research methods
- A resource that’s up a situation usually in a laboratory
- The situation is nearly the same for every participant in the study, they’re controlling the variables
- Participants encounter different levels of the independent variable
What is the main difference between experiments and descriptive research methods
An experiment always has a cause and effect llk
The array of numbers left with after a study are called
Data
How does statistics help us with our experiments
It allows us to summarize data test hypothesis and make sense of it all
What is central tendency include
Mean, median, and mode
What does variability include
- Min/max
- Range
- Standard deviation
How do you calculate the mean
- Add up all the numbers
- Count the # of numbers you have
- Divide the sum of all the numbers by the # of numbers
How do you calculate the mode
- Arrange the numbers from smallest to largest
- Visually scan the numbers to determine which one appears more frequently by arranging the numbers from smallest to largest
Is it possible that there is no mode
Yes
Can there be more than one mode
Yes
How do you calculate median
- Arrange the numbers from smallest to largest
- Count the # of numbers you have
- Find the position of the median
How do you know how to find the position of the median
It depends on whether you have an odd versus even # of numbers
How do you find the position of the median of an odd # of numbers
- You count the # of numbers you have
2. You add that # +1 then divide by two and this tells you the position
How do you find the position of the median of an even # of numbers
- You count the # of numbers you have
- Then use these 2 formulas n/2 and (n/2) +1
- You will have 2 results that will be used for 2 positions
- You then calculate the mean of the 2 numbers
How do you calculate the min/max
- Arrange the numbers from smallest to largest
- Take note of the smallest and largest numbers
- The Min is the lowest number and the Max is the largest number
How do you calculate the Range
- Arrange the numbers from smallest to largest
- Take note of the smallest and largest number
- Minus the smallest number from the largest number
- Your result will be a single number
What is correlation used for
To determine if two variables are related to one another
What specifically will correlation tell you
If two variables are positively, negatively, or not related to each other
What is a positive correlation
As one variable increases the other variable also increases
What is a negative correlation
As one variable increases the other variable decreases
What is Zero correlation
Two variables are not related to each other
Correlations range
From -1.00 to +1.00
What does a correlation of zero mean
That there is no relationship between two variables
What does a correlation of exactly + 1.00 or - 1.00 mean
That the two variables are perfectly related
What is a small correlation and what does it mean?
+/-.20 to +/- .29
AKA weakly related
What is a medium correlation and what does it mean?
+/- .30 to +/- .49
Moderately related
What is a large correlation and what does it mean?
+/- .50 or larger
Strongly related
What correlation is it usually impossible to get and which one is mostly found
Impossible–> +/-1.00
Mist found are +/- .70 and +/-.15
Does correlation and its relationship between two or more variables imply cause and effect
No, it’s simply means that as one variable changes so does the other
What does the number portion of the correlation coefficient indicate
- It indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.
- The closer the number is to (+/-) one the more strongly related the variables are
- And the more predictable changes in one variable will be as the other variable changes
- A zero correlation coefficient means that the variables are not related to one another at all
The variables in a positive correlation move in the
Same direction
The variables in a negative correlation move in the
Opposite direction
What kind of value do correlations have
A predictive value
Obedience is
The tendency to conform to those in authority
What was the Milgram’s study
- A set of studies performed by Stanley Milgram in 1974
- he observed the extent to which people would obey someone in authority even to the extent of causing harm to others
What stemmed Milgram’s interest in obedience and harm
His desire to understand the Holocaust during world war II
What was the role of the teacher and the learner in the Milgram study
- The teacher deliver the shocks
2. The learner was supposed to receive the shocks
