Week 5 - Magic and Witchcraft Flashcards
Witchcraft in Popular Culture
presented as evil doers who cause harm by harnessing dark, magical forces -> not representative of any major religious or spiritual belief or practice
Witchcraft as a Spirituality
many cultures/religions believe in inherent power in people and elements of nature -> witches are believed to be individuals who can manipulate the natural world through magical means and not always malevolent
Witchcraft Accusations
many societies use “witch” as an accusation -> cultural tool intended to punish people who don’t conform societies standards
Witch Hunts in Early Modern Europe (1450-1700)
between c.1450- c.1650, about 40,000-60,000 people were executed by legal authorities for witchcraft in Europe -> ~100,000 when counting deaths from factors relating to witchhunts
What is the percentage of females accused of being witches?
75%-90%
Witches and Christianity
early christianity: belief in witches itself outlawed or considered heresy
Witchcraft in the 1300s
demonic witchcraft not a concept yet; accusations of sorcery levelled at prominent political or religious leaders
Witchcraft -> c.1375
- more courts adopt inquisitorial procedures
- abolish penalities for false accusations
Witchcraft Under a Inquisitional System
judicial authorities could initiate investigations w/o formal accusation from an aggreved party -> tourture often used to extract confessions from accused
Wicthcraft in the 1400s
- first witch trials appear as concept of dibolica/demonic witchcraft emerges -> sporadic cases but not widespread panic yet
- then witchcraft becomes frmaed as an alliance btw a person and the devil that undermines and threatens the Christian foundation of society
Diabolic Witchcraft: What were witches thought to engage in?
1) Performance of Maleficium (harmful magic)
2) Diabolism (worship of the Devil)
Diabolism
- theory emerged that witches made pacts with the devil or were worshipping the devil
- devil seducing witches by appearing at night
- devil put distinctive mark on witches body, usually in concealed spot
The Papal Bull (1484)
public decree issued by Pope Innocent VII in response to inquisitors Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger’s request for authority to persecute witches
What did The Papal Bill do?
- acknowledged existence of witches and explicitly empowers the inquisition to percecute witches and sorcerers
- gave approval for inquisition to proceed w/ “correcting, imprisoning, punishing, and chastising” such persons “according to their deserts”
Malleus Maleficarum (1487)
- book published by Heinrich Kramer
- most influential and widely used manual on witches, witch-hunting, and how to get confessions from accused
- argues that witchcraft is a real and present danger, requiring severe punishment
How did the Malleus Maleficarum become so popular?
- Kramer utilized the newly invented Gutenberg printing press to shepherd his work into print and spread his ideas
- Kramer included Papal Bull in forefront of book so it appears like Catholic Church sactioned it
Why was Malleus Maleficarum misogynistic?
women described as more prone to become Satan devotees; engage in scarficial infanticide, orgies and sex w/ the devil
women, sex and witchcraft
- women thought to be chronically oversexed
- women not simply witches, but whores -> “witch whores” common insult
- witch trials focused upon witches as sexual slaves of Satan
- virginity became the ideal
Women and Witchcraft
women’s precieved promiscuity harmful to men and bewitchment could cause impotence, or the disappearance of the penis itself -> penis theft was capital offence
The Witchcraft Act (1542)
passed in England, marking beginning of formal legal proceedings against witches in England
Witch Trials -> Early 1500s to Late 1600s
witch hunts esclating across Europe Areas w/i Holy Roman Empire, France, the British Isles, and Scandinavia
Witch Trials -> 1640s-1650s
witch trials reaching peak in religions like Holy Roman Empire Empire, with famous cases such as the Wurzburg and Bamberg witch trials resulting in hundreds of executions
Witch Trials -> 1645-1647
- witch hunt craze hits England
- Matthew Hopkins (self styled “Witchfinder General”) responsible for hundreds of deaths
Witch Trials
- various acts of torture used agaisnt accused to coerce confessions and casue them to provide names of alleged co-consiprators
- when tortured, 95% conviction rate
- when not tortured, 50% conviction rate
- thought that only through divine intervention, where God commands angels to prevent the devil from aiding the witch, could the witch feel the full pain of torture and be compelled to confess
How To Spot A Witch
Ducking
- right thumb tied to left toe, then plunged into ponf -> floated = associated w/ black arts (body rejecting baptismal water), drowned = innocent
- given position, would likely float
Tourcher Methods Used By Matthew Hopkins (Witchfinder General)
- sleep deprivation
- walking w/o rest till feet blistered
- swimming test (tied to chair and thrown into water)
- cutting flesh w/ blunt knife -> no blood = witch
- swung into a moat
Hopkin’s Discovery of Witches
Hopkins and his assistants looked for the Devil’s mark
The Devil’s Mark
marks all witches/sorcerers thought to have; it’s dead to all feeling and won’t bleed -> could sometimes be mole, birthmark or extra nipple
What happens is “witches” had no visable marks?
would discover invisible marks through “pricking”
Witch Prickers
employed to prick accused w/ knives or needles looking for marks
Why were witches burned at the stake?
- believed that witch’s power could be nullified by destroying her blood in fire
- uncooperative witches burned w/ green wood, which took longer to kill them
- executions took place shortly after sentencing
- witches usually strangled first
- if witch wasn’t dead and managed to get out of the flames, onlookers shoved her back in
English Witch Executions
- not burned at the stake, death at stake reserved for traitors and heretics, under the Witchcraft Act of 1563
- ~ 1000 ppl hanged for witchcraft in England
Why did the witch craze arise when it did? (Social Context)
- Black Plague wiped our 1/2 of Eupoe = severe labour shortage, economic instability, breakdown of existing social structure (fudealism -> diversified economy)
- from plague years, Europe had well-developed tradition of persecution of outsider groups
- economic hardships, social strain, conflicts over resources -> theory that. accusations common in communities facing severe economic hardships
- political and religious unrest arising from Protestant Reformation
Why did witchcraft arise when it did? (gender based/feminist theories)
gender based theories highlight how accusations of witchcraft disproportionately targeted women, often reflecting broader societal anxieties about female autonomy, sexuality, and power
Possible Factors about when witchcraft arised when it did based on gender-based/feminist theories
- increase need & desire to control nature -> nature = female symbolism, increased emphasis on male control w/i the family
- demographic trends -> mostly women bc lived longer then men (typical witch old, poor, and isolated), unmarried women increased bc of rising marriage age bc of poverty and closure of covanents due to Protestant Reform, w/o protection of male patronage, women set to inherit property (due to no brothers or sons) especially threatening, threatened to upset male control of property and social relations btw sexes
Functionalist Perspective on Witchcraft
- believed witchcraft served as a social glue, binding societies together through common fear or respect
- provides explanitory framework for misfortune and social tensions
- witchcraft accusations may have played role in releasing tensions or helping terminate personal relationships that have become undisirable to one party
Scapegoating Theory
- marginalized individuals (often women, elderly, or impoverished) targeted as witches during times of crisis or societal stress as way to find tangible source of blame for misfortunes
- accusations of witchcraft could be used to eliminate rivals or settle personal vendettas
why did belief in witchcraft die out?
- rise in scientific though and skepticisim
- decline in magic coincided w/ increased control of environment
- changes in legal practices -> need for better evidence and decline in tortue = less convictions
- improved economic conditions and social stability reduced need for scapegoats -> better food supplies and conditions of health, end of plague, better communications = better sense of security, abandoned the idea of personal malice as cause of misfortune
Perceptions of Witchcraft
- dark or evil or “new age” earth-based goddess worship
- primarily Eurocentric Perspectives
- practices defined as wtichcraft today been performed thousands of years all over the world -> practices not seen as witchcraft but religious and spiritual practices of the people
Witchcraft in Western Societies
seen as a harmful practice, accusations of witchcraft led to widespread witch trials and executions
Witchcraft in African Societies
many African cultures consider witchcraft real and inherently manevolent, often blamed for misfortunes and calamities
Witchcraft in Asian Societies
in some Asian societies, witchcraft integrated into broader spiritual framework and not always seen as manevolent
Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard (E.E. Evans-Pritchard)
- british anthropologist
- “Witchcraft, Oracles, and Magic Among the Azande” (1937), provides detailed account of the Azande’s belief system and practices related to witchcraft
The Azande
- residing in regions of South Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Central African Republic
- horticultralist but also hunt and fish
- have complex belief system centered around witchcraft, ehich they see as part of everryday life
Azande Witchcraft - Granary Accidents
- granaries built on wooden sites to protect food and supplies from animals
- serving as communal spaces for sharing new and socializing
- termites weaken stilits, leading to collapess that can injure or kill people underneath
- Azande attributed such accidents to witchcraft
- acknowledge natural causes (termites) but seek deeper explanations for misfortunes (for timing and selection of victims)
Azande Beliefs
believed witches can injure others, not through rituals, but by physic means
Why did Evans-Pritchard think there was rationality within Azande beleifs?
they were understanding of natural causes while probing into why misfortune occurs to certian individuals at specific times
Azande Witchcraft
- present in every aspect of society
- believed power can only be passed from parent to child (of the same sex)
- a witch uses witchcraft when he has hatred towards another person
- can manipulate nature to bring harm upon victims of the witch
- oracles and witch doctors determine whether someone is guilty of using witchcraft on another villager
- more magic created to avenge victim and punish who committed the transgression
- unconcious psychic powers emanating from black swelling, located near the liver
Azande Oracles
- victims use divination rituals to uncover the identity of witch responsible for their misfortune
- play critical role as means of uncovering truth ans making decisions
- “Benge” oracle most significant, involving uses of poison to determine guilt or innocence
Evans-Pritchard on Azande Witchcraft
defines witchcraft as the innate ability to cause misfortune or death
Azande Witch Accusations and Resolutions
- after identification, political head sends deputy to witch, requesting end of bewitchment
- accused typically agrees upon confrontation
- if vic health improves, issue resolved
- continued misfortune leads to further divination to discover deceit or identity of new witch
- witches never strangers or those in superior social positions
- subjects not chosen randomly but among social rivals, political competitors, or known enemies
Importance of Azande Witchcraft according to Evans-Pritchard
- challenged prevalling notions of “primative” religion and magic, showing them as rational systems of thought that serve complex social and psychological functions
- approach to resolving witchcraft accusations underscores role of social structures and relationships interpreting and addressing misfortune
Witchcraft as conflict resolution
- formalized method of conflict resolution and mechanism for social control, maintaining social harmony by attributing personal misfortune or social grievances to supernatural causes rather than individuals
- strengthen community bonds as individuals come together to protect against or resolve witchcraft accusations
Structural Perspective on Witchcraft
suggests witchcraft part of braoder belief systems that form structures of society -> intergral part of mental processes that create cultural meaning
Witchcraft Accusations Today -> Sub-Saharan Africa
- practice and beliefs continue to evolve in context of modernization and globalization
- biggest concern: accusations against children resulting in severe abuse
Witchcraft Accusations Today -> Nigeria
- Pentecostal oastors intertwined Christianity w/ witchcraft beliefs for profit, leading to torture and killing of accused children
- many targets have traits that stand out -> learning disabilities, stubornness and ailments such as epilepsy
Witchcraft Accusations Today -> Malawi
traditional healers and some Christain counterparts involved in exorcisims, causing abandonment and child abuse
Witchcraft in Africa: Bantu Culture
believed that witches can communicate e/ world of deaf and usurp or “eat” life force of others, bringing their victims misfortune, illness and death
Witchcraft in Africa
- adult witches said to bewitch children by giving them food. them forcing them to reciprocate by sacrificing a family member
- officials attribute surge. in child persecutions to war -> conflict left families intact but too destitute to feed themselves
- witch situation started when fathers unable to care for their children, started seeking any justification to exile them
Witchcraft in Africa: Albinism
- ppl w/ albinism especially persecuted in areas where witch doctors promoted belief in potential magical and superstitious properties of albinos’ body parts
- ppl turning to witchcraft bc of mistaken belief that using thier body parts in potions can bring good luck and wealth (majority of vic’s are children)
Efforts to end witchhunting in Africa
- Angola’s gov trying to dispel notions of child witches since 2000, but can’t change beliefs when even professional workers believe in witches
- tring to teach authority figures that harming children not okay
Witch-hunting in India
- ancient practice spanning back centries in tribal communities
- British authorities implemented several bans targeting spiritual leaders and holy meant who named and accused witches in their villages
Why were witch-hunting bans met with resistance in India?
witch-killers were influential men in these communities -> bans just drove witch hunts underground
Why was witch-hunting a symbol of colonial resistance?
witches became a symbol of colonial power and who many believed had been “protected” by new British laws, therefore practice of witch-hunting became indirect form of expressing hostility towards colonial power
Witch-hunting Today: India
- prodominatley in rural, poor areas w/ high concentrations od Adivasis (tribal and indigenious. communities)
- majority victims: women, especially older, single. of lower class
- witch becomes scapegoat for all their problems
Efforts to end witch-hunting in India
- laws inacted in several states
- activists against witch-hunting
- The Assam Witch Hunting (Prohibition, Prevention and Protection) Act -> considered India’s toughest anti-witch-hunting law
Contemporary Paganism
new religious movement that champions magic as both group worship and personal empowerment
Modern Day Witches and Neo-Paganism
- often entered around resistance to oppressive religious institutions and social structures and based on history of witch trials
- witch trials didn’t target the powerful, persecuted societies most marginalized members (particularly women)
Modern Day Witches
- the religious positions itself as the reclaimation of traditions historically repressed by miss ionizing Christianity, especially (but not exclusively) in medieval and early modern Europe
- Wicca, mostwell-known forms of contemporary paganism
Orgin of Wicca
- created by Gerald Gardner based on Margaret Murray’s work
- based her theory of ancient witch cult on Frazer’s universial fertility cult in Golden Bough and applied it to creative readings of English witch trial transcripts
- argued persecuted witches not vicious, satanic heretics but practitioners of Old Religion -> their folk religion combining reverence for nature w/ spell work to improve individual lives and agricultural welfare of community
- Gardner adopted, placing magic at centre of Wiccan practice
- less a religion of belief than of experience and rituals
- no central religious authority; overarching rule: “harm none and do as you will”
Modern Day Witchcraft
bc label of witchcraft demonize colonized people and their practices, terms like “witchcraft” and witches sometimes inappropriate for religious belonging to BIPOC communities -> many contemporary subcultures now reclaim Witch as a desirable identity, percisely because of its colonial history
