week 4 - learning

Question 1

chunk

Answer 1

Chunk - The process of grouping information together using our knowledge.

Question 2

classical conditioning

Answer 2

Classical conditioning - Describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning.

Question 3

encoding

Answer 3

Encoding - The pact of putting information into memory.

Question 4

habituation

Answer 4

Habituation - Occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure.

Question 5

implicit learning

Answer 5

Implicit learning - Occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.

Question 6

implicit memory

Answer 6

Implicit memory - A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent.

Question 7

incidental learning

Answer 7

Incidental learning - Any type of learning that happens without the intention to learn.

Incidental Learning - Occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express. Not trying to learn, happens as a byproduct of what happens

Question 8

intentional learning

Answer 8

Intentional learning - Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention.

Intentional Learning - Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention. * Not always better! Happens when we try to learn.

Question 9

metacognition

Answer 9

the awareness of our own cognition

Metacognition - Describes the knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory.

Question 10

non associate learning

Answer 10

Nonassociative learning - Occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behavior.

Question 11

operant conditioning

Answer 11

Operant conditioning - Describes stimulus-response associative learning.

Operant conditioning - association between response and outcome
Giving rat a box w a lever, finds out that it gets food and that when he presses the level he will get food
Reinforcer - continues behaviour and he will continue
Can also be negative - ex. If the level gave a shock the rat would not touch it
Punisher - negative response

Question 12

perceptual learning

Answer 12

Perceptual learning - Occurs when aspects of our perception change as a function of experience.

Question 13

senitization

Answer 13

Sensitization - Occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure

Question 14

transfer appropriate processing

Answer 14

Transfer-appropriate processing - A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity.

Question 15

working memory

Answer 15

Working memory - The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.

Question 16

blocking

Answer 16

Blocking - In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. Suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning.

Question 17

categorize

Answer 17

Categorize - To sort or arrange different items into classes or categories.

Question 18

classical conditioning

Answer 18

Classical conditioning - The procedure in which an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (or US). The result is that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit a conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning is nowadays considered important as both a behavioral phenomenon and as a method to study simple associative learning. Same as Pavlovian conditioning.
Conditioned compensatory response - In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli.

Question 19

conditioned response

Answer 19

Conditioned response (CR) - The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.

Question 20

conditioned stimulus

Answer 20

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that elicits a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 21

context

Answer 21

Context - Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs (e.g., being under the influence of alcohol has stimulus properties that provide a context) and mood states (e.g., being happy or sad). It can also be provided by a specific period in time—the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context.”

Question 22

discriminative stimulus

Answer 22

Discriminative stimulus - In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.

Question 23

extinction

Answer 23

Extinction - Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviors that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished.”

Question 24

fear conditioning

Answer 24

Fear conditioning - A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.

Question 25

goal directed behaviour

Answer 25

Goal-directed behavior - Instrumental behavior that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.

Question 26

habit

Answer 26

Habit - Instrumental behavior that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the value of the reinforcer. Insensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.

Question 27

instrumental conditioning

Answer 27

Instrumental conditioning - Process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviors and their consequences. Also known as operant conditioning.

Question 28

law of effect

Answer 28

Law of effect - The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects.

Responses that are followed by a pleasant state of affairs will be strengthened and those that are followed by discomfort will be weakened.

Nowadays, the term refers to the idea that operant or instrumental behaviors are lawfully controlled by their consequences.

Question 29

observational learning

Answer 29

Observational learning - Learning by observing the behavior of others.

Question 30

operant

Answer 30

Operant - A behavior that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat’s lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer.

Question 31

prediction error

Answer 31

Prediction error - When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising). Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error.

Question 32

preparedness

Answer 32

Preparedness - The idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks.

Question 33

punisher

Answer 33

Punisher - A stimulus that decreases the strength of an operant behavior when it is made a consequence of the behavior.

Question 34

quantitative law of effect

Answer 34

Quantitative law of effect - A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviors. A reinforcer is less effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviors.

Question 35

reinforcer

Answer 35

Reinforcer - Any consequence of a behavior that strengthens the behavior or increases the likelihood that it will be performed again.

Question 36

reinforcer devaluation effect

Answer 36

Reinforcer devaluation effect - The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable.

Question 37

renewal effect

Answer 37

Renewal effect - Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction. Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.

Question 38

social learning theory

Answer 38

Social Learning Theory - The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviors by observing the behavior of others.

Question 39

social models

Answer 39

Social models - Authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviors.

Question 40

spontaneous recovery

Answer 40

Spontaneous recovery - Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.

Question 41

stimulus control

Answer 41

Stimulus control - When an operant behavior is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it.

Question 42

taste aversion learning

Answer 42

Taste aversion learning - The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness, and this causes the organism to reject—and dislike—that taste in the future.

Question 43

unconditioned response

Answer 43

Unconditioned response (UR) - In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning.

Question 44

unconditioned stimulus

Answer 44

Unconditioned stimulus (US) - In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs.

Question 45

vicarious reinforcement

Answer 45

Vicarious reinforcement - Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person.

Question 46

accomodation

Answer 46

Accommodation - Changing one’s beliefs about the world and how it works in light of new experience.

Question 47

appraisal structure

Answer 47

Appraisal structure - The set of appraisals that bring about an emotion.

Question 48

appraisal theories

Answer 48

Appraisal theories - Evaluations that relate what is happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, and beliefs. Appraisal theories of emotion contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals, such as whether an event furthers or hinders a goal and whether an event can be coped with.

Question 49

coping potential

Answer 49

Coping potential - People’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges.

Question 50

functionalist theories of emotion

Answer 50

F​unctionalist theories of emotion - Theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history.

Question 51

impasse driven learning

Answer 51

Impasse-driven learning - An approach to instruction that motivates active learning by having learners work through perplexing barriers.

Question 52

intrinsically motivated learning

Answer 52

Intrinsically motivated learning - Learning that is “for its own sake”—such as learning motivated by curiosity and wonder—instead of learning to gain rewards or social approval.

Question 53

knowledge emotions

Answer 53

Knowledge emotion​s - A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring. These emotions come about when unexpected and unfamiliar events happen in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run.

Question 54

openness to experience

Answer 54

O​penness to experience - One of the five major factors of personality, this trait is associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness. People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe.

Question 55

trait curiosity

Answer 55

Trait curiosity - Stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious.

Question 56

positive and negative reinforcement differences and similarities

Answer 56

Operational conditioning
Positive reinforcement - giving a dog a treat for sitting (doing what you want)
Ex. adding something (the treat)
Negative reinforcement - taking away something as a reward - ex. Rewarding your child for doing well on a test by removing a chore
Removing something as a reward (the less chores)
Positive punishment - can be scolding/spanking/etc - ADDING
Negative punishment - taking something away as punishment - ex. Taking away iPad time
Positive (+) ADD SOMETHING
Negative (-) REMOVE SOMETHING

Behaviour more likely to occur with positive reinforcement

Question 57

steps of learning

Answer 57

Explicit learning - 1st step = encoding, and step = consolidation, 3rd step = retrieval

Learners
Have to have good motivation/organization/expertise
Encoding Activities - how to take in info
Incidental and intentional learning
Good to space out learning
Interleaving multiple skills 
Testing yourself - practice tests
Materials 
Retrieval

Question 58

working memory

Answer 58

Working Memory - The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation. Keep info into working memory by studying. When we stop rehearsing, it does not become consolidated and goes into long-term memory.

Question 59

transfer appropriate processing

Answer 59

Transfer-appropriate Processing - A principle that states that memory performance is superior encoding activity. Testing yourself when learning and later- there is more overlap of what you’re doing.
Interleaving multiple skills - when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original

Question 60

spontaneous recovery

Answer 60

Spontaneous Recovery - Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning. This is the recovery of fear responses/extinction.

Question 61

fixed ratio and variable ratio

Answer 61

ratio = amount of responses
schedules of partial reinforcement

fixed ratio - reinforcement only occurs after a fixed number of responses. ex. doing 5 practice questions to receive a treat. the reinforcement is contingent on the amount of tasks completed, not the time it takes to do it. this may encourage people to work faster to get more rewards often.

variable ratio - the reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct responses has occurred. The number of responses needed changes after each reinforcer. Like a series of fixed ratios put together. Ex a car salesman receives a bonus needs to sell 5 cars for bonus 1, then 3 cars for bonus 2, then 9 cars for bonus 3. The average amount of cars needed to be sold.

Question 62

fixed interval and variable interval

Answer 62

interval = time
schedules of partial reinforcement

fixed interval - reinforcement occurs after a consistent amount of time. ex. getting paid every two weeks but only if you sell one membership every two weeks. The paycheque doesn’t change, and is dependent on the passing time. Worker isn’t incentivized like fixed ratio.

variable interval - responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed
a schedule of reinforcement where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, which is the opposite of a fixed-interval schedule.