week 4 Flashcards
Define technology
Practical technologies: these are used to act on the material world directly
Cognitive technologies: these are used to act on the mind, self or other. They change what is recalled, thought or experienced
examples of cognitive technologies
Reference books, libraries, internet archives extend our ability to store information
Catalogues, databases internet search engines extend our ability to locate and recall information
Signalling systems, postal systems, radio, telephone, email, blogs, have furthered our ability to communicate information.
However, all these technologies are built on much older systems – technologies of cognition namely language and writing.
Language
Tomasello (1999, p.150) – “language is a form of cognition”
Language enables us to manipulate the attentions of others and their actions
But it also can influence our own thoughts and actions through inner dialogue.
E.g. young children solve problems better when they are allowed to talk to themselves (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005)
Self-talk enables us to plan complex sequences of behaviour, remain focussed on the task and overcome problems.
Writing
Likely developed as a means to extend our capacity for memory and facilitate communication
Early written records mark time, record quantities, mark events and prompt narratives
Writing also enabled one person to speak to many people, thus writing is essential to coordinating large groups of people.
Mass printing enabled people to have a direct relationship with religion (i.e., via the bible and not mediated by a priest).
Possible selves
Self has an elaborate structure (see Week 2)
Markus and Nurius (1986) developed the concept of possible selves
People have an idea of what they would like to be, but also what they are afraid of becoming
e.g., ideal selves provide goals and hope,
but equally negative future selves can create fears and threats
Storytelling
cultural technologies can be conceptualised as intervening in our parallel and possible selves, enabling us to both vicariously live out an unactualized aspect of the self and to cultivate a new aspect of the self, which might become actualised in the future” (Gillespie et al., p.304)
Story telling is a key technology that underscores novels, films, video games etc.
These technologies allow us to explore alternative worlds and versions of the Self.
Fairy-tale
Fairytales evolve through many generations passing through cultural and psychological constraints
They usually involve an inversion of the power structures of society, e.g., paupers triumphing over kings and giants
This provides a welcome affirmation of the way the world should be in contrast to the way the world is.
In fairy-tale, the harsh injustices of the world of reality are rectified
Avatars
This has led to the emergence of the “virtual self” known as an avatar:
A graphical representation of a user within the environment which is under his or her direct control
“virtual self is the site of experimentation and imagination, as individuals interact with technology and each other to create new expressions and experiences for what it means to be a person” (Gillespie et al., 2018).
Virtual Worlds
Virtual worlds have grown in popularity and complexity, with varying degrees of possibilities for imagination.
For example, Massively Multiplayer Ongoing Role Playing Games (MMORPG) emphasise fantasy role play where users collaborate to achieve goals and overcome obstacles (e.g., World of Warcraft)
Self-determined worlds (virtual environments built by users) have no preorganised purpose or structure for engagement, but enable imagination around architecture, landscaping and role play (e.g., Minecraft)
Avatars and the self
Avatars enable users access to experiences with others and realisations of their own identity that are not necessarily possible otherwise
People can use avatars to construct a template for real life, to explore and try out aspects of personality and physical characteristics
It is a safe space for exploration due to anonymity of the user
Proteus effect
Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972) – people infer their own attitudes and beliefs from observing their own behaviour.
Can this same process apply to observing one’s own avatar?
Proteus effect (Yee & Bailenson, 2007): users infer from their avatar’s appearance expectations around attitudes and behaviour, and then conform to these expectations.
Procedure: Yee & Bailenson (2007)
Confederate instructed to always accept the split as long as it didn’t exceed $90 in favour of the participant
R1: P offers a split
R2: C offers a 50/50 split
R3: P offers a split
R4: C offers a 75/25 split in their favour
Measures: how much did P offer in R1 & 3, and did they negotiate unfair split in R4?
Results: Yee & Bailenson (2007)
The first split was unaffected by condition.
However, by the second split participants in the tall condition split the money significantly more in their own favour that participants in the short condition
And participants in the short condition were twice as likely to accept the unfair offer (72%) as participants in the tall condition (38%)
Thus, the height of avatars impacted how confident the participants behaved
Yee & Bailenson (2009) study 2
Follow up study examined the same phenomenon using characters from World of Warcraft (WoW).
Both heigh and attractiveness of the avatar were significant predictors of behaviour.
But also, behavioural changes from the virtual environment transferred to subsequent face-to-face interactions.
This shows that exploring alternative virtual selves can also change our own real and lived self-concept
Social psychology theory & the impact of technology
Birchmeier et al., (2011)
Argue that existing social psychological theories already account for many of the psychological phenomena that take place via digital technology.
Online interactions have some unique properties compared with physical interactions:
Anonymity / choice / no geographical constraints / no time constraints
But the social processes observed are the same:
Impression formation, relationship development, group dynamics, ostracism.
Social Identity Theory
Explains intergroup relations as a function of group-based self-definitions.
Individuals define their own identities regarding social groups, and such identifications work to protect and bolster self-identity.
Social identity is the aspects of a person’s self-concept or image that derive from the social categories to they belong to (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
Main principles/assumptions
Interpersonal-intergroup continuum
Positive self-esteem and intergroup differentiation
Group strategies to avoid negatively evaluated social identities
Interpersonal-intergroup continuum
Personal Identity
Characteristics that define us as individuals as distinct from other individuals (e.g., personality).
Social Identity
That part of our self-concept corresponding to group memberships, and the value and emotional significance attached to those memberships (Spears & Tausch, 2015).
Personal and social identity are two extremes by which behaviour can be defined.
In group situations, we shift from personal to social identity
Positive self-esteem and intergroup differentiation
Central principle of SIT: People seek to maintain positive social identities.
To maintain or enhance their self-esteem, members of social groups will base their comparisons with relevant outgroups with which they can make a favourable comparison on behalf of the ingroup.
Strategies to avoid (negative) social identities
There is a possibility that groups to which one belongs may not satisfy the motivational principle of maintaining a positive self-esteem and intergroup differentiation.
Members of the group avoid negatively evaluated social identity by:
Individual mobility (e.g., leaving the group).
Social creativity (e.g., changing the comparison).
Social conflict (e.g., engaging in collective action).
What about the Other?
SIT tells us about the dynamics of the Self in a social situation.
But what going deeper into the notion of how we behave towards others?
Interestingly, there are different ideas about the potential of technology to help build positive relationships with others.
The Contact Hypothesis (Allport 1954)
Let’s first consider a key theory about building positive relationships between groups.
Background to theory: US Supreme Court ending segregation of black and white students
would contact between the two groups end ethnic prejudice and discrimination?
Allport thought that the situation was more complicated than being resolved by mere contact alone. Casual contact would create anxiety leading to reinforcement of stereotypes.
Allport’s (1954) conditions
So Allport developed a set of conditions that had to be met for in person contact to create a positive effect
(1) Equal status: contact must first take place between members of equal status
(2) Cooperation: rival groups must work towards a superordinate goal to reduce stereotypes
(3) Intimate contact: contact must not be superficial, It must allow members to really learn the other side
(4) institutional support and willingness to participate: support from authorities builds positive social norms, and participants must want to interact, rather than being compelled.
Amichai-Hamburger (2008)
Suggests the internet can support Allport’s conditions
Equal status: cues to gauge status differences are not readily available online
Cooperation: virtual workgroups have shown to be very productive
Institutional support and willingness to participate: online interactions easier to set up for institutions, and easier for people to volunteer and participate
Intimacy: argues that many interactions can involve greater sharing of interests quickly
Further perceived benefits
Additionally, online participants have more control in how they present themselves thus reducing anxiety around interactions.
Online interactions are also argued to allow individuals to speak up in a group setting, showing more in-group nuance.
Group norms are also argued to form quickly in online settings.
Ad hominem attacks
Internet has changed writing – people don’t just read, they can respond via comment threads, and when you disagree there is more to say (Graham, 2008)
An ad hominem attack is when people attack the character of the person instead of the argument they make
Online forums quickly descend into ad hominem attacks, where people try to understand identity boundaries to boost their own legitimacy and undermine authenticity of outgroups
Highlights that social psychological dynamics still dominate the way we use technology online
Building online social networks
There’s a link between online gaming and positive pro-community bonding effects.
Social capital – “resources embedded in ties to others which can be leveraged for the individual benefit or collective good” (Molyneux et al., 2015, p. 382).
Gaming social capital real world social capital, i.e., online friends are more likely to develop face-to-face connections as a result.
Turing test
The Turing test is a measure of artificial intelligence based on human social intelligence.
Chatbots: a computer programme designed to simulate conversations with human users.
There are many chatbots out there and they have grown substantially in sophistication…
The cyranic illusion
What happens if you separate the body from the voice that speaks?
Cyrano de Bergerac is a fictional poet who assists a handsome but inarticulate nobleman (Christian) in wooing a woman by telling him what to say to her.
Echoborg research
Echoborgs a human shadowing the speech of a chatbot
Study 1: participants engage with a chatbot via either an echoborg or a human
Uncanny Valley
A term used to describe the sense of unease or revulsion towards robots that have a human-like appearance and behaviour.
Why do we reject entities robotic that are trying to be human?
Concerns around authenticity, transparency, privacy, motivations (Sundar, 2022).
Concerns about the future (e.g., mass unemployment), control of decision-making.
Concerns about the extent to which AI makes us question our own identity of being human and intelligent.
Video games and violence
A long, politicised, and extremely contested area of research with evidence both for and against the relationship between video games and violence.
Since Columbine high school shooting in 1999, US politicians have blamed video games for violence in children.
Evidence for the link between video games and violence
Craig Anderson (has published numerous studies on this topic).
E.g., Anderson & Dill (2000)
Study 1 – (78 male; 148 female UGs) found that real-life violent video game play was associated with aggressive behaviour and delinquency. Stronger for men than women.
Study 2 – (106 male; 104 female UGs) laboratory exposure to a graphically violent video game increased aggressive thoughts and behaviour. Again, effects stronger for men.
Thus, video games result in short term (laboratory aggression) and long term (delinquency) behaviours.
Beck et al. (2012)
Investigated violence against women in video games attitudes towards women.
110 participants, completed a rape myth acceptance survey, video game survey, and observation of Grand Theft Auto game.
Degree of exposure to violent games did not increase negative attitudes towards women.
However, there was an association between how violent games were and a significant increase in rape myth acceptance for male participants, but not female participants.
Theorised that objectification of women leads to lower empathy/sympathy specifically for men.
Technology in education
Dontre (2021) examines the detrimental effects of academic distraction via laptops, smartphones and social media use.
Such use has been exacerbated by online learning environments and Covid-19 social distancing.
Laptops can be beneficial for note-taking (resulting in greater depth through verbatim transcription) but can also prevent deeper thought that paraphrases work. Laptops can also disturb neighbouring students.
Smartphones are associated with lower grades and increased anxiety and disruptive behaviours (e.g., texting in class) but offer benefits in terms of self-directed learning
