Week 3-Social Perception Attitudes and Attribution

Question 1

According to the Theory of reasoned action, the behaviour is influenced by…

Answer 1

Attitudes; Subjective norms and Intentions

Question 2

When an attitude enables us to express who we are and what we believe in, it is likely that the attitude serves the following function…

Answer 2

Value Expressive

Question 3

According to Jones and Davis (1965), we are more likely to infer a behaviour is caused by internal factors when…

Answer 3

Behaviour is Freely Chosen

Question 4

What theories do we use to make sense of other’s behaviour?

Answer 4

1) The Naive Scientist-Heider
2) Theory of correspondent inferences-When do we infer traits from behaviour?
3) Kelley’s covariation model -How do we explain social events?

Question 5

Kelly’s Covariation Model

Answer 5

Like Heider, Harold Kelley assumed that people behave like naïve scientists:

To develop theories about other’s behaviour, people search for covariation:
-Covariation = when 2 things happen together

People use principles of covariation to determine whether the behaviour is internally or externally caused.

Question 6

Theory Correspondent Inferences (Jones and Davis)-When do we infer people’s traits from different people?

Answer 6

Theory described how we use others’ behaviour as a basis for inferring their stable dispositions.

-Act reflects some “true” characteristics of the person (trait, motive, intention, attitude)

Five sources of information/cues:

1) Freely chosen behaviour
2) Non-common effects
3) Socially desirable
4) Direct relevance to us (hedonic relevance)
5) Intention to affect us (personalism)

Walking in a room or streaking

Question 7

Kelly’s Covariation Model

Answer 7

Like Heider, Harold Kelley assumed that people behave like naïve scientists:

To develop theories about other’s behaviour, people search for covariation:
-Covariation = when 2 things happen together

People use principles of covariation to determine whether the behaviour is internally or externally caused.

CONSISTENCY; CONSENSUS; DISTINCTIVENESS

• Consistency:How does the person act in response to the same stimulus over time?
• Consensus: How do other people act in response to the same stimulus?
• Distinctiveness:How does the person act in response to stimuli that are similar but not the same?

Question 8

Kelly’s Covariation Model

Answer 8

Like Heider, Harold Kelley assumed that people behave like naïve scientists:

To develop theories about other’s behaviour, people search for covariation:
-Covariation = when 2 things happen together

People use principles of covariation to determine whether the behaviour is internally or externally caused.

CONSISTENCY; CONSENSUS; DISTINCTIVENESS
-Consistency:How does the person act in response to the same stimulus over time?

• Consensus: How do other people act in response to the same stimulus?
• Distinctiveness:How does the person act in response to stimuli that are similar but not the same?

Low consistency=Discounting-search for a different cause

High consistency+consensus+distinctiveness= external-attribution to the stimulus

High consistency+low consensus+low distinctiveness= internal attribution to the person

Question 9

Biases in attribution

Answer 9

Fundamental Attribution Error (Ross, 1977):
-The tendency to overestimate the importance of the actor and to underestimate the situation as a determinant of action

Correspondence bias (Gilbert and Malone, 1995):
-The tendency to not only infer internal causes for behaviour (as in the FAE), but to also conclude that those internal causes are stable (often, personality or attitudinal) characteristics of the actor

Question 10

Biases in attribution

Answer 10

Fundamental Attribution Error (Ross, 1977):
-The tendency to overestimate the importance of the actor and to underestimate the situation as a determinant of action

Correspondence bias (Gilbert and Malone, 1995):
-The tendency to not only infer internal causes for behaviour (as in the FAE), but to also conclude that those internal causes are stable (often, personality or attitudinal) characteristics of the actor

Actor-Observer Bias:The tendency to see other people’s actions as internally caused, and my own as situationally caused – even when explaining the same actions. (Jones & Nisbett, 1972)

Ultimate Attribution Error: (Hindu and Muslim attributions) (Pettigrew, 1979)-The tendency to assume that whole groups of whom one is not a member (out-groups) have similar, negative dispositions or personality characteristics that cause negative behaviour.
i.e., attributions can be not only self-serving but also in-group-serving. This links to stereotypes: schemas that assume that all members of an out-group behave in the same negative way for the same internal reasons

Question 11

Why do we show attribution biases?

Answer 11

Cognitive factors-Behaviour more salient than background; More information about self than others; First assume dispositional cause and subsequently correct for situational forces

Motivational factors-People explain the world in ways that preserve positive identity (self, group)

Cultural factors-The explanations we produce are culturally bound

Question 12

Culture and Attribution

Answer 12

Individualist cultures focus more on disposition than collectivist cultures; for example, self-serving bias is weaker in collectivistic cultures (Lee & Seligman, 1997)

White Americans more self-serving bias-WESTERN CULTURES a learnt tendencies

Miller-dispositional biases- culture teaches us

Question 13

ATTRIBUTION

Answer 13

Like scientists, ordinary people want to understand and explain the world around them-Need to predict and control

Internal, external biases.
Broadly, when explaining behaviour, people ask:
Was it something about them?
Was it something about the situation they were in?

Explanations are not perfect. They are shaped by cognitive, motivational and cultural forces

Question 14

What is an attitude? Define attitude

Answer 14

An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of FAVOUR or DISFAVOUR (Eagly & Chaiken, 1998)

Evaluations we make of other individuals and groups, attitudes underly existing behaviour.

A relatively enduring organisation of beliefs, feelings and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events, or symbols
(Hogg & Vaughan, 2010)

Tripartite model: BELIEFS; FEELINGS and BEHAVIOURAL TENDENCIES.
Affective = feelings about the attitude object
Behavioural = predisposition to act towards the attitude object in a certain way
Cognitive = beliefs about the attitude object

A three-component model of attitudes; generally attitudes based on these three elements

Question 15

Functions of attitudes

Answer 15

1) Value-Expressive function
2) nstrumental function
3) Ego-defensive function
4) Knowledge function

Question 16

Why are social psychologists interested in attitudes?

Answer 16

People like to evaluate things. Attitudes are an important aspect of psychology. GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE WITH SIMILAR ATTITUDES.

The ways in which people evaluate their social world (e.g., other people) has important consequences for their relationships with and actions toward others.

The attitudes people have to guide the decisions that they make, and therefore have important implications for the self.

Question 17

Why do we act in certain ways? Do attitudes affect our behaviour (attitudes+nehaviour)?

Answer 17

In the early 1930’s Richard LaPierre went on a road trip with a young Chinese couple.
Expected to encounter many difficulties… BUT, he didn’t only 1 refused service

After the trip, LaPierre wrote to all the establishments and asked them for their attitude about serving a Chinese visitor:
92% said that they would NOT serve Chinese.

BEHAVIOUR DIFFERENT FROM ATTITUDE so attitudes DO NOT predict behaviour. (complex relationship other factors)

1) Behaviour was specific. SPECIFIC ATTITUDES BETTER predictors than general attitudes.
2) Strong/accessible attitudes

Question 18

Attitude accessibility/attitude strength

Answer 18

Attitudes are represented in memory (Fazio, 1995)

Accessible attitudes are those that can be more easily recalled from memory

• Strong influence on behaviour
• Stable and more selective in judging an object
• Difficult to change
• Association in memory between an object and evaluation

Other variables are involved in the attitude-behaviour relationship: E.g., Theories of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1989) …

Question 19

Theory of reasoned action

Answer 19

Attitude is specific. More predict of a specific behaviour in engaging in the task.

• SPECIFIC ATTITUDE
• FIRM INTENTIONS TO ENGAGE
• SUBJECTIVE NORMS (our friends or family)
• PERCEIVED BEHAVIOURAL CONTROL (self-efficacy are we capable)
• Inductive norms and affective beliefs.

Quitting smoking, positive attitude to quit other people wanting you to quit, leading to the behaviour. HABITS are harder to change behaviour

Question 20

Measuring attitudes- are our internal attitudes similar to our external attitudes?

Answer 20

Self-report measures- direct and straightforward

Social desirability and introspection
Attitude scales -multi-item questionnaires designed to measure people’s attitudes towards an object
for example, Likert scale

Facial expressions when they feel differently. Physiological, heart rate, perspiration. The tone of voice-quick or anxious. Body language. Can be monitored?

Facial Electromyograph (EMG): An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes
Certain muscles contract when we feel specific emotions e.g., happiness, anger, disgust and sadness

Question 21

Implicit Associate Test (IAT)

Answer 21

How much we like/dislike. Cognitive representations.

black and white faces- in our mind there’s concepts. how fast can u put black and good or white and good together?

Question 22

ATTITUDES

Answer 22

• Attitudes are evaluations… elements of attitudes: –Affect, Behaviour, Cognition
• Attitudes guide people’s behaviours… sometimes…
• Attitudes and behaviour can be inconsistent
• Range of attitude measures, developed over time