Week 3: Psychological Discovery: Research Design & Analysis

Question 1

What is gaining “knowledge via superstition”?

Answer 1

Knowledge that is based on subjective feelings, interpreting random events as nonrandom events, or believing in magical events

Question 2

What is gaining “knowledge via intutition”?

Answer 2

Knowledge that is gained without being consciously aware of its source Example: “I have a gut feeling about something”

Question 3

What is “illusory correlation”?

Answer 3

The perception of a relationship that does not exist Example: Many people believe that more babies are born during a full moon or that couples who have adopted a baby are more likely to conceive after the adoption. This is not true.

Question 4

What is gaining “knowledge via authority”?

Answer 4

Knowledge gained from those viewed as authority figures

Question 5

What is gaining “knowledge via tenacity”?

Answer 5

Knowledge gained from repeated ideas that are stubbornly clung to despite evidence to the contrary. For example: In political campaigns, a particular slogan is repeated over and over until people begin to associate the slogan with a product and believe that the product meets its claims. The accuracy of such knowledge may not have been evaluated in any valid way

Question 6

What is gaining “knowledge via rationalism”?

Answer 6

Knowledge gained through logical reasoning. (E.g using premise form to outline arguments: P1 All humans are mortal P2 I am a human C Therefore, I am mortal

Question 7

What is gaining “knowledge via empiricism”?

Answer 7

Knowledge gained through objective observations using their senses, of organisms and events in the real world Example: “I will believe nothing until I see it with my own eyes” It is relying on observation to draw conclusions

Question 8

Is empiricism enough to learn about the world?

Answer 8

No. We need to use both empiricism and rationalism so that the facts collected in empiricism can be organised, thought about, and have meaning drawn from them, also to make predictions. We need to use both together to make sure that we are being logical about the observations that we make.

Question 9

Gaining knowledge via science involves what?

Answer 9

A merger of rationalism and empiricism. Scientists collect data (make empirical observations) and test hypotheses with these data (assess them using rationalism)

Question 10

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 10

A prediction regarding the outcome of a study involving the potential relationship between at least two variables. They are stated in such a way that they are testable.

Question 11

What is a variable?

Answer 11

An event or behaviour that has at least two values

Question 12

What is the goal of testing hypotheses?

Answer 12

To arrive at or test a theory

Question 13

What is a theory?

Answer 13

An organised system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain certain phenomena and how they are related. In other words, theories allow us to develop a framework regarding the facts in a certain area. Example: Darwin’s theory organises and explains facts related to evolution. To develop his theory, he tested many hypotheses.

Question 14

What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?

Answer 14

A hypothesis is a prediction regarding the outcome of a single study. Many hypotheses may be tested and several research studies conducted before a comprehensive theory on a topic is put forth. Once a theory is developed, it may aid in generating future hypotheses. If the results from future hypotheses further support the theory, we are likely to have greater confidence in the theory. Future research can also expose weaknesses in a theory that may lead to future revisions of the theory.

Question 15

Why do some psych students believe psych is not a science?

Answer 15

Because they believe that the subject matter alone defines what is and what is not science. What defines science is the manner in which something is studies. Science is a way of thinking about and observing events to achieve a deeper understanding of these events. Psychologists apply the scientific method to their study of human beings and other animals.

Question 16

What type of attitude does the scientific method involve invoking?

Answer 16

An attitude of skepticism

Question 17

What is a skeptic?

Answer 17

A person who questions the validity, authenticity, or truth of something purporting to be factual

Question 18

What are the 3 important criteria that help define science?

Answer 18

1. Systematic empiricism 2. Publicly verifiable knowledge 3. Empirically solvable problems

Question 19

What is systematic empiricism?

Answer 19

Making observations in a systematic manner to test hypotheses and develop or refute a theory

Question 20

Why use systematic empiricism?

Answer 20

So that researchers can draw more reliable and valid conclusions than they can from observation alone.

Question 21

What is publicly verifiable knowledge?

Answer 21

Presenting research to the public so that it can be observed, replicated, criticised and tested

Question 22

What are empirically solvable problems?

Answer 22

Questions that are potentially answerable by means of currently available research techniques.

Question 23

True or false: If a theory cannot be tested using empirical techniques, scientists will find other techniques to do so

Answer 23

FALSE. Scientists are only interested in using empirical techniques Example: Is there life after death? This is not an empirical question and thus cannot be tested scientifically.

Question 24

What is the principle of falsifiability?

Answer 24

The idea that a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is possible to refute or disconfirm it. In other words, the theory must predict not only what will happen but also what will not happen.

Question 25

True or false: A theory is not scientific if it is irrefutable

Answer 25

True.

Question 26

What is pseudoscience?

Answer 26

Claims that appear to be scientific but that actually violate the criteria of science. It is usually irrefutable and is often confused with science.

Question 27

What is basic research?

Answer 27

The study of psychological issues to seek knowledge for its own sake, mostly conducted in university laboratory settings. Purpose is to gain knowledge, not immediate practical application.

Question 28

What is applied research?

Answer 28

The study of psychological issues that have practical significance and potential solutions, most often conducted by private businesses and the government. It can be immediately applied to some situation. E.g identifying how stress affects the immune system, determining the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Question 29

What is the difference between basic and applied research?

Answer 29

Basic research is done to gain knowledge, without an immediate practical application, but can often lead to applied research. Applied research can be immediately applied to some situation.

Question 30

What are the three basic goals of scientific research?

Answer 30

1. To describe behaviour 2. To predict behaviour 3. To explain behaviour = better understanding of behaviour and mental processes

Question 31

What is “Description”?

Answer 31

Carefully observing behaviour in order to describe it. Psychs might describe patterns of behaviour, thought, or emotions in humans. Description allows us to observe that two events are systematically related to one another. Without it, predictions cannot be made.

Question 32

What is “Prediction”?

Answer 32

Identifying the factors that indicate when an event or events will occur. In other words, knowing the level of one variable allows us to predict the approximate level of another variable.

Question 33

What is “Explanation”?

Answer 33

Identifying the causes that determine when and why a behaviour occurs. Example: if gender predicts channel changing (with a remote), what might cause there to be a difference between men and women? Maybe men have less tolerance for commercials?

Question 34

What are the ten steps in the research process?

Answer 34

1. Find a research idea: (select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question) 2. Form a hypothesis (Or tentative answer to your research question) 3. Determine how you will define and measure your variables (identify the specific procedures that will be used to define and measure all variables.) 4. Identify participants or subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment 5. Select a Research Strategy (consider internal and external validity between an experimental (cause-effect) and a descriptive, correlational or quasi-experimental strategy 6. Select a research design (decide among between-subjects, within-subject, factorial or single-subject designs 7. Conduct the study - collect the data 8. Evaluate the data 9. Report the results 10. Refine or reformulate your research idea

Question 35

What is psychological discovery?

Answer 35

The study of research methods and statistics or research design and analysis

Question 36

Using the scientific method, an explanation or understanding human behaviour may be sought by examining..? (three bullet points)

Answer 36

1. Examining co-variation of events. (a change in one events is associated with a change in another event) 2. Examining time-order relationships. (see how an events changes over time) 3. Elimination of possible alternative causes. (when you have ruled out all but one cause for an event)

Question 37

All potential explanations offered must be able to stand tests of:

Answer 37

1. Verifiability: the original experiment or study must be conducted and documented in a manner that it is replicable by another researcher. 2. Predictability: the conclusions from the study should enable us to make useful and reliable predictions about future events. 3. Falsifiability: the explanation provided by the researchers should be phrased in such a way that it can be disproved or refuted. 4. Fairness: the data gathered for the study should be obtained in a objective and unbiased manner, with all relevant data accounted for in the research design (fairness).

Question 38

What are some sources of research ideas?

Answer 38

1. Past Research (leading to “iterative” ideas (building on of past ideas) 2. Practical Problems 3. Intuition (common sense) - lead us to crack a “puzzle” 4. Empiricism (observation) - curiosity aroused by things we observe in the world e.g in the lab 5. Theory development

Question 39

What are the benefits of having a theory?

Answer 39

Can lead to the generation of new hypotheses that we seek to test as we try to understand different aspects of the theory as a whole.

Question 40

What are the properties of a good theory? (the characteristics we look for)

Answer 40

1. Parsimony - how simple is the theory. Simple explanations are preferred over complex 2. Precision of predictions - predictions of behaviour more valuable if precise over being vague 3. Rigorous testing - a good theory will survive testing of its propositions. Rigorous testing will seek to falsify propositions rather than to confirm them

Question 41

What is a good hypothesis be?

Answer 41

1. Logical - The conclusion of a logical argument that is grounded in established theory or previous research Usually derived via deductive reasoning 2. Testable - All the variables, events, and individuals involved must be clearly defined so they can be observed and measured 3. Refutable - Can be demonstrated to be false or (i.e., possible for the outcome to differ from the prediction) 4. Positive - Must make a positive statement about the existence of something (e.g., existence of a relationship, or difference).

Question 42

What is a variable?

Answer 42

A variable is any characteristic or condition that can have more than one value, or that can vary across organisms, situations, or environments. There are different types of research variables classified in terms of the role they serve in the research design.

Question 43

What is a dependent variable? (DV)

Answer 43

The variable a researcher is interested in assessing. It may represent an outcome or a naturally occurring variable that might change under different circumstances.

Question 44

What is an independent variable? (IV)

Answer 44

The variable that is though to affect the DV in some way. There maybe one or more IV in a particular study (see image below).

Question 45

What is “statistical interference”?

Answer 45

The process by which we derive generalisations about populations on the basis of sample data.

Question 46

What is “sampling theory”?

Answer 46

The techniques we use to draw representative samples from populations

Question 47

What is the key to statistical interference?

Answer 47

Sampling Theory

Question 48

In terms of selecting a research strategy, (the research approach you will use to address your research question), what is the strategy choice largely dependent upon?

Answer 48

Whether the research goal is description, prediction, or explanation E.g experimental, quasi-experimental, non-experimental, correlational, or descriptive

Question 49

Psychological Discovery is the study of..

Answer 49

Research Methods and Statistics, or research design and analysis (RDA). RDA is part of scientific practice, scientific literacy, and clinical practice

Question 50

What are the 3 goals of all scientific research?

Answer 50

To describe, predict, and explain or understand nature/events.

Question 51

Is RDA mainly concerned with statistics?

Answer 51

NO, it is a method of logical thought. Far more emphasis is placed on logic in first 1 - 8 steps in Research Design. Only from steps 8 - 10 do we see statistics are important.

Question 52

Research may be either ____ or ____?

Answer 52

BASIC or APPLIED Basic = aimed at gathering knowledge or addressing theoretical questions Applied = aimed at solving practical problems or addressing practical questions

Question 53

What will a hypothesis usually do?

Answer 53

Predict a relationship between two variables - perhaps a causal relationship

Question 54

What is research design?

Answer 54

When you formulate a general plan for implementing a research strategy E.g: - Do I examine groups or an individual? -Do I use the same individuals or different individuals in each group? -How many variables will I include in the study?