Week 3

Question 1

What are heuristics?

Answer 1

Heuristics are simple rules of thumb that guide our behavior

Question 2

3 characteristics of heuristics

Answer 2

1. They are triggered by external stimuli that require you to evaluate something or make a decision
2. The heuristics replaces the original question with a simpler one that is easier to answer: they simplify reality
3. Heuristics are adaptive, which means that they help you to respond effectively to a situation, in a way that will lead to a correct decision in most cases

Question 3

Representativeness heuristic

Answer 3

We base our evaluations of objects, people or events on how representative they are of a certain prototype / how much they resemble a typical example

It helps to asses probabilities
“If A resembles B, is must be related to B”

COGNITIVE

Question 4

Availability heuristic

Answer 4

If you can easily remember a certain object, event or behaviour, you probably think that it is more common than it really is

It helps us to assess frequencies

COGNITIVE

Question 5

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Answer 5

The first thing (number) you see, is called the anchor. You adjust subsequent judgements based on this anchor.

An anchor value is most influential when it is active in our working memory as we are making our assessment

Even happens when you are presented with figures utterly irrelevant to the matter in hand

COGNITIVE

Question 6

Affect heuristic

Answer 6

We are led by our feelings rather than thorough consideration of the pros and cons of particular options

If we feel positive about X, then it must have more pros than cons

COGNITIVE

Question 7

More-is-better heuristic

Answer 7

If there is more of something, it must be better –> if something is more expensive, it must be of better quality

COGNITIVE

Question 8

Content framing

Answer 8

The content of the message is tailored to the target group, only certain aspects are focused on; those aspects are made more salient in the message

Question 9

Gain framing

Answer 9

• Positive phrasing
• More effective when risk of behavior is low –> risk avoidance
• Behavior that PREVENTS diseases
• People want to keep what they already have

Question 10

Loss framing

Answer 10

• Negative phrasing
• More effecting when risk of behavior is high –> engenders risk taking
• Behavior that DETECTS diseases
• People don’t want to LOSE what they have

Question 11

Cognitive heuristics

Answer 11

Simple rules of thumb to assess arguments presented to us, and to estimate probabilities of pros and cons

Question 12

Social heuristics

Answer 12

Social heuristics specifically have to do with a social aspect, the influence of other PEOPLE on our judgments

Question 13

Authority heuristic

Answer 13

This heuristic is used when someone believes the opinion of a person or authority is correct, simply because this individual is an authority or expert

We rely on their opinions and advise on the grounds of their expertise

Question 14

Likeability heuristic + 4 factors

Answer 14

We more easily comply with requests from people we like than from someone we do not know or do not like

4 factors:

1. Similarity
2. Familiarity
3. Helpfulness + compliments
4. Physical attractiveness

Question 15

Consistency heuristic

Answer 15

We like to be consistent in our thoughts, words, and actions, otherwise we feel cognitive dissonance.

We then feel the need to change our attitude or behaviour in order to achieve a sense of consistency between our acts and our attitudes; we aim to bring them in line

Question 16

Reciprocity heuristic

Answer 16

This heuristic is based on the fact that we have a strong instinctive urge to return a gift or favour

Even when you receive something you did not ask for, or you even do not like the person doing you the favour

Question 17

Scarcity heuristic

Answer 17

Scarce goods are seen as appealing to us because scarcity signals restricted freedom (we can regain freedom by owning it)

If you own a scarce good that other people do not have, it makes you feel special and unique

Scarce goods also signal quality –> Historically, scarce goods often had high quality because they were expensive and difficult to produce

Question 18

Copycat branding

Answer 18

‘If it looks like A then it is/tastes just as good as A’

One brand is exploiting another’s success simply by imitating it –> consumers might feel cheated!

BELONGS TO REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC

Question 19

Brand extension

Answer 19

Using the brand name of a product with a well-developed image for a different product

E.g. Apple products have a similar, recognizable look and design and are named in a consistent manner: iPhone, iMac, iPad, iPod

Question 20

Classic Milgram experiment

Answer 20

• would ordinary Americans follow instructions given by a person in authority, even if that meant physically harming an innocent person?
• ‘teacher’ (test subjects) had to set the ‘student’ (confederates) brief memory tasks. Wrong answer = electric shock
• volunteers who expressed doubt as the experiment progressed, or indicated that they wanted to stop, were told to continue
• 65% obeyed the researcher to go to the maximum voltage even when the ‘student’ begged to stop

EXPLANATION:
our tendency to surrender the responsibility for our decisions and actions to authority figures

Question 21

4 factors when need for consistency is highest

Answer 21

1. We cannot find excuses to ‘justify’ the inconsistency
2. Others can witness the behavior
3. The behavior requires considerable effort
4. The behavior is carried out actively

Question 22

Foot in the door technique

Answer 22

The influencer begins by asking for something that few people would refuse. This small request is followed by a more significant one. The person concerned is more likely to comply, to be consistent with their previous behavior!

CONSISTENCY HEURISTIC

Question 23

Low-balling

Answer 23

We are seduced into buying a specific product at a particular price. Once we have agreed, the salesperson tells us that it has sold out, but that another (more expensive) alternative is still available. Burdened by the need to remain consistent, at this point we find it hard to refuse the second, more expensive offer

CONSISTENCY HEURISTIC

Question 24

Door in the face technique

Answer 24

Based upon the assumption that making a concession can be seen as a favor

• Process of negotiation begins with a proposition so unrealistic that the other side ‘slams the door’ on it
• Each concession is seen by the other party as a favor, and so results in a reciprocal gesture

RECIPROCITY HEURISTIC

Question 25

That’s not all technique

Answer 25

Adding in an extra or dropping the price after making an offer

E.g. saying that cupcakes cost 75 cents, and then adding a bit later that that price also includes two cookies

RECIPROCITY HEURISTIC

Question 26

Labelling technique

Answer 26

The influencer figuratively ‘labels’ the subject in a positive manner in the hope that they will act accordingly.

People labelled as ‘responsible citizens’ in the run-up to a local election, for example, were found to be more likely to cast their vote a week later than others who had been labelled ‘ordinary citizens’

CONSISTENCY HEURISTIC

Question 27

reactance theory

Answer 27

people will do almost anything to regain lost freedom

Question 28

3 reasons why scarcity makes goods more appealing

Answer 28

1. Restricts our freedom to choose, which people instinctively react strongly against
2. People like to have the feeling that they are unique
3. Our evolutionary past tells us that hard-to-obtain products and services tend to be either important or of better quality