Week 2 - Development of working memory

Question 1

One of the most important executive functions in a school context

Answer 1

1. Remember instructions
2. Solve a math problem in your head
3. Perform multiple thinking steps at the same time
4. Remember text without having to read back
5. Remember rules of a game while you are playing

Question 2

What does working memory predict?

Answer 2

Academic succes:
* Working memory is a better predictor than
IQ for later academic achievement, such as learning math and verbal skills

Learning:
* Working memory, but not IQ, predicts subsequent learning in children with learning difficulties

Question 3

What does brain activity during a visuospatial working memory task predict?

Answer 3

Arithmetic performance 2 years later

Question 4

The working memory model

Answer 4

Visuospatial <–> Central executive <–> Phonological loop

Phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are connected to long term memory

Question 5

Memory span

Answer 5

Number of items that can be retained in memory

Question 6

Factors that influence memory span

Answer 6

• Age
• Word length
• Articulation rate (depends on age & familiarity/long-term memory)

Question 7

Working memory development at 5 years old

Answer 7

At ~5 years old, children switch from (mostly) visual to (mostly) phonological working memory

Question 8

Phonological confusability/similarity effect

Answer 8

Non-homophones are easier to remember at ages above 5 year old

3-5 year olds don’t show phonological
confusability effect, reliance on other memory
system (presumably visual)

Question 9

Picture confusion memory task

Answer 9

Hypotheses:
* If verbal rehearsal strategy: you should find the long names most
difficult to remember
* If visual memory strategy: you should find the visually similar stimuli
most difficult to remember

Question 10

Results picture confusion memory task

Answer 10

Results:
* For 5-year olds: visually similar pictures most difficult
* For 10-year olds: pictures long names most difficult (i.e., “word length effect”)

Question 11

Implications picture confusion memory task

Answer 11

As memory development proceeds less use of visual working memory

Question 12

Maintenance vs manipulation of working memory in adolescents

Answer 12

Children aged 8-12 years perform disproportionally worse on manipulation

Different developmental trajectories for maintenance and manipulation

Question 13

Brain regions during manipulation vs maintenance task

Answer 13

• VLPFC showed similar activation pattern across age groups
• Unlike adolescents and adults, children failed to
  recruit DLPFC more strongly on manipulation trials relative to maintenance trials

Question 14

What does the spanboard task measure?

Answer 14

1. Visuospatial modality
2. Maintaining information
3. Working memory capacity

Question 15

What do the WISC-V and spanboard task show together?

Answer 15

They provide an index of capacity (working memory index)

Question 16

What does the N-back task measure?

Answer 16

1. Visuospatial/phonological modality
2. Maintaining information
3. Updating

Question 17

How to recognize children in the classroom with low working memory skills?

Answer 17

Use the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function

Question 18

Signs of low working memory

Answer 18

Behavior: poor attention span and high levels of distractibility –> poor in planning and organizing information

Question 19

Experiment that measured the training of working memory

Answer 19

1. Pre-training measurement: fMRI scan
2. Working memory training: 6 weeks, 2-3 times a week and 25 minutes each time
3. Post-training measurement: fMRI scan

Question 20

Signs of ADHD

Answer 20

Poor attention span and high levels of distractibility but also higher rates of oppositional and hyperactive behaviors

Consequences:
* Problems with inhibitory control, shifting between activies, and emotion regulation
* Only part of children with ADHD have problems with planning (combined type)

Question 21

Results of training working memory

Answer 21

Training might lead to more efficient strategy use among adolescents

After training: no difference between adolescents and adults in performance and neural activity patterns

Question 22

Implications of working memory training?

Answer 22

• Adolescents show potential for working memory
• Immature pattern of brain activity not necessarily related to age, but rather strategy use, as adolescents can recruit these areas after training

Question 23

Problems with WM training?

Answer 23

Different results for studies on working memory

• Behavioral effects
• Neural effects

Question 24

What may influence WM training results?

Answer 24

• Duration length of training
• Difficulty adaptive vs non-adaptive
• Control group (passive/active mostly of interest for behavioral results)
• Healthy participants vs clinical group
• Age of participants