Week 2

Question 1

What should positive social science be like according to Comte?

Answer 1

Positive social science should replace a religious or theological view of reality, known as metaphysics in which the Church plays a central role in education

Question 2

According to Francis Bacon, only with which two human capabilities can knowledge be attained?

Answer 2

1. Rational thinking
2. Learning from observation and experience

Question 3

Kant’s critical rationalism

Answer 3

Some knowledge can only be gained through critical reflection, which included reflection about the possibilities and limits of thinking itself

Question 4

A priori knowledge

Answer 4

knowledge prior to experience and observation

Question 5

Example of analytic a priori knowledge

Answer 5

“All squares are polygons”

(knowledge solely based on the prior knowledge of what a square and what a polygon is)

Question 6

Synthetic a priori knowledge

Answer 6

-goes beyond a strict analysis of concepts and definitions
-based on pure thinking

Question 7

Example of synthetic a priori knowledge

Answer 7

The phenomena of causality and gravity
–> only the effects can be observed, but not the phenomena themselves

Question 8

What kind of characters do Newtonian mechanisms and geometry have?

Answer 8

Priori and synthetical character, since they tell us something about the surrounding reality

Question 9

Positivism

Answer 9

Extreme form of empiricism

–> “science should only be based on observations and experiences. Anything that cannot be observed does not exist and is not a source of knowledge.”

Question 10

What does the manifesto composed by the positivists of the Vienna Circle state?

Answer 10

There are only synthetic claims a posteriori (claims based on empirical observations)

Question 11

Logical positivism

Answer 11

Only knowledge that can be traced back to observational data can be qualified as scientific knowledge

Question 11

Why is the claim ‘water is H2O’ synthetic and a posteriori?

Answer 11

Synthetic: it tells more than the everyday definition of water (e.g. ‘water is transparent’)

A posteriori: it is based on the discovery of the molecular structure of water

Question 12

Problem of induction

Answer 12

The problem of undermining any form of empiricism or positivism as a result of the idea that only empirical data counts for good reasons

(= in essence, the statement is pointing out a weakness in thinking that only what we can directly observe/measure is sufficient for good reasons, and it raises the question of whether there are other valuable ways of gaining knowledge)

Question 13

Syllogism

Answer 13

The diagram of reasoning that is used with deduction

Question 14

Deduction

Answer 14

When someone deduces a specific conclusion of general claims or laws
(the opposite of Induction)

Question 15

The deductive-nomological model of science

Answer 15

From a law, a conclusion is derived

Question 16

Induction

Answer 16

Deriving general claims from specific observations

Question 17

The correspondence model of truth

Answer 17

A claim is true when it corresponds with reality. The truthfulness of the claims has to be tested and measured (i.e. verified empirically). BUT: not every concept can be measured

Question 18

Observable concepts

Answer 18

Concepts that can be observed and measured

Question 19

Theoretical concepts

Answer 19

a network of complex phenomena (e.g. economic recession and selfishness) and cannot be measured easily
–> problem with correspondence model of truth: determining if a claim corresponds to reality is difficult

Question 20

Problem with correspondence theory

Answer 20

-no clear connection between the phenomena being studied and the phenomena being observed

Question 21

Three conditions a theoretical concept must meet to be a good concept

Answer 21

1. Robustness (the concept should fit into more than one context)
2. Fit (the claims that are made by the concept must fit into a more general theory)
3. Predictability (credible predictions about the occurrence of the phenomenon must be made

Question 22

The coherence model of truth

Answer 22

Argues that there is a multitude of reason-giving considerations that contribute to the assurance of the truth of a particular claim.
These are: observations, theoretical explanations and predictions

–> there is no significant difference between analytic and synthetic claims

Question 23

Coherence

Answer 23

A function of cohesion and mutual support

Question 24

The standard model of science

Answer 24

Integrates both induction and deduction in an empirical cycle. It involves phases such as induction (generalising from observations), deduction (testing theories and hypotheses), and refining theories based on empirical findings

Question 25

Empirical Regularities and Theoretical Insights

Answer 25

The standard model: starts with induction, detecting empirical regularities and laws through ongoing generalisation

Theoretical Insights: formulated to explain these regularities, and the theory is then scrutinised through testing and observation

Question 26

Coherence Model vs Correspondence Model

Answer 26

Coherence model challenges the correspondence model, suggesting that claims are supported not only by correspondence with reality but also internal cohesion and mutual support

The coherence model emphasises that scientific claims are strengthened by multiple reasons and considerations

Question 27

What does empiricism involve?

Answer 27

Empiricism involves the epistemology that all knowledge comes from experience