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Question

Functional explanation

Answer 1

focuses on the purpose or role that a particular behaviour, feature, or system serves

Answer 2

centers around mental states, beliefs, desires, and intentions of individuals

Answer 3

explores fundamental questions about the nature of reality & delves into abstract principles

Answer 4

-verified through observation - e.g. "the circle has a diameter of ten meters"

Answer 5

- verified through logical structure of the statement - e.g. "the circle is round"

Answer 6

abstract ideas or constructs that are used to explain and understand phenomena within a particular field of study

Answer 7

the conjunction of general properties that define a concept together

Answer 8

set of all real-life phenomena that the concept refers to

Answer 9

Intension: characteristics like being a motorised vehicle, having four wheels Extension: all individual cars e.g. sedans and sports cars

Answer 10

- Theoretical concepts - Problem of induction

Answer 11

-questions the reliability of inductive reasoning. -questions why we assume the future will be like the past just because it has been that way before

Answer 12

-draws general conclusions from a finite number of observations -new information can change the value of the truth of conclusion

Answer 13

-draws specific conclusions referring to general rules - new information has no influence upon the truth of conclusion

Answer 14

- Starts with a scientific hypothesis - Deductively derives testable predictions from the hypothesis - Empirically tests predictions through observation and experimentation.

Answer 15

- Observation: Begin with observations of the world. - Pattern Recognition: Identify patterns or regularities in observations. - Hypothesis Formation: Formulate a hypothesis to explain observed patterns. - Prediction: Deductively predict consequences of the hypothesis. - Testing: Empirically test predictions through experiments or observations. - Analysis: Analyze results to confirm or reject the hypothesis. Theory Formation: Develop a theory based on confirmed hypothese

Answer 16

Observational language follows requirements of logical reducibility, theoretical language doesn't. (but it is still included in system of languages because it helps develop new scientific knowledge)

Answer 17

truth: lies in observations truth-likeliness: can be observed in empirical laws in hypotheses (degree to which observations match hypotheses)

Answer 18

The philosophical concept that claims all knowledge comes from thinking

Answer 19

A model of rationalism rotted in falsification. It urges you to think more skeptical about the knowledge obtained.

Answer 20

The problems in logical positivism and its model are too fundamental for adjustments

Answer 21

- Include theoretical concepts and induction in the system of knowledge -Distinction between theoretical/observational language and true/likely true statements

Answer 22

for a hypothesis or theory to be considered scientific, it must make specific, testable predictions that, if proven false by empirical evidence, would falsify the theory

Answer 23

-challenges the distinction between analytical and synthetic statements -when you find a conflicting example, don't immediately adjust the theory (it might just be an anomaly) -investigate the new observation and understand how it came to this conflict

Answer 24

Yes, but there are some problems: - Observation is never theory-independent -Theories function as search-light theories, guiding and influencing observation

Answer 25

-concepts that guide people in what to look for and influence ones's reporting of what is observed -theories that are embedded in, fundamentally a part of, obeservational instruments

Answer 26

No. Striving for the highes truth-likeliness will lead to undesirable results. The statements with the least empirical confirmations are most likely to be true

Answer 27

- Reflects real-life scientific development, starting with observations and explanations - Paradigms have 4 elements: symbolic generalisations, exemplars, scientific values, and methodological prescriptions - challenged the traditional view of scientific progress as a continuous and cumulative process --> emphasised the role of revolutions and paradigm shifts in shaping science

Answer 28

- Symbolic generalisations (theories depicted through symbols, e.g. equations) - Exemplars (examples of how to apply a theory) - Scientific values (human interactions) - Methodological prescriptions (how observations can be made & what requirements are for something to count as an observation)

Answer 29

A very different occurrence than what would be expected based on the accepted theory

Answer 30

Normal science: steady cumulative growth within a paradigm (e.g. solving a puzzle with a known picture) Revolutionary science: Paradigm shifts leading to revolutionary knowledge growth (e.g. solving a puzzle with a new picture)

Answer 31

1. Confusion of cause and effect 2. Assumption of a higher order system at play 3. Assumes that the explanans are a necessary conditions

Answer 32

Ontological: only individuals exist; social phenomena are outcomes of individual actions Methodological: social phenomena exist but are explained through individual actions

Answer 33

-prisoner's dilemma -2 prisoners both have binary option of confessing to their crimes or denying -optimal solution: denial - aim of game theory: reach the most efficient solution that is the most beneficial for both parties

Answer 34

- a situation in which each participant's strategy is optimal, given the strategies chosen by the other participants - no player has an incentive to deviate from their chosen strategy as doing so will not lead to better outcomes

Answer 35

A state of allocation of resources in which it is impossible to make any one individual better off without making at least one individual worse off.

Answer 36

Explains imperfections in human cooperation and decision-making separation in agency relationships

Answer 37

- The interests of the principal and the agent might not align --> agency problem - e.g. the agent acting in their own interest rather than the principal's SOLUTIONS 1.) Bonding: incentive pay for managers 2.) Monitoring: establishing boards, use of auditors

Answer 38

Agency relationship can only exist if decision-making (done by agent and principal) are separated 2 ways to separate: 1. Formally: when people are given specific functions with specific decision-making rights 2. De facto: information asymmetry (e.g. doctors & lawyers have more info than clients and thus more agency

Answer 39

Monitoring costs (experienced by principal) Bonding costs (experienced by agent) Residual loss (experienced by principal) Main challenge: minimise sum of agency costs as these constitute a deadweight loss

Answer 40

the shared attitudes, beliefs, or intentions that a group of individuals holds collectively

Answer 41

There is no fundamental difference between analytical and synthetic sentences

Answer 42

every test of a hypotheses requires background assumptions

Answer 43

Ontological questions : Are humans

Answer 44

A field that deals with - what management science is - How it works - The logic through which we build scientific knowledge

Answer 45

System I: fast but unreliable (operates automatically & quickly, with little/ no effort. BUT: often false answer) System II: slow but reliable (more consideration & thought)

Answer 46

True premises in a logical argument lead to true conclusions (truth preservation)

Answer 47

- Denying the consequence (If A then B, X is not B, thus X is not A) - Affirming the antecedents ( If A then B, X is A, Thus X is B)

Answer 48

the process of creating a new statement from one or more existing statements

Answer 49

P: Antecedent Q: Consequent

Answer 50

Conditional Statement: If it is raining (P), then the ground is wet (Q). Affirming the Antecedent: It is raining (P). Conclusion: Therefore, the ground is wet (Q).

Answer 51

Conditional Statement: If it is snowing (P), then schools are closed (Q). Denying the Consequent: Schools are not closed (not Q). Conclusion: Therefore, it is not snowing (not P).

Answer 52

Conditional Statement: If it is summer (P), then the days are longer (Q). Affirming the Consequent: The days are longer (Q). Conclusion: Therefore, it is summer (P).

Answer 53

Conditional Statement: If the alarm is not set (not P), then you will oversleep (not Q). Denying the Antecedent: The alarm is set (P). Conclusion: Therefore, you will not oversleep (not Q).

Answer 54

The Validity of the argument does not depend on the truth of the premises, nor the conclusion.

Answer 55

--> Science could lead the way out of misery Verification: a criterion of meaning --> only claims/sentences which can be verified through empirical observation can have any meaning and therefore be true or false. – Science can offer certainty where metaphysics and religion failed

Answer 56

Metaphysics: concepts and knowledge that are beyond what we can verify.

Answer 57

Limited by our ability to observe Observations can be wrong or sometimes impossible, challenging knowledge realiability

Answer 58

We need to put input ourselves - the empirical content. Otherwise, Knowledge is empirically meaningless; Essentially, with rationalism we have theories about nothing

Answer 59

The process from sensory experience to knowledge

Answer 60

Rationalism, Empiricism, Idealism

Answer 61

All knowledge comes from experience and we need the ability to structure the experience

Answer 62

Truth is not out there; it is a property of sentence. - A sentence can be true of false, but the world is not true of false.

Answer 63

it's a requirement for all knowledge. For every statement in a system of knowledge to be true, you should be able to use logic and through logic only to go back to individual experience. If a statement cannot be reduced through logic to observation, it should not be scientific, therefore should not be in the system of knowledge

Answer 64

even though there are many different kinds of science (like physics, biology, chemistry), they're all connected and work together. It's as if there's an underlying harmony or common way of looking at things that ties them all together. --> it is not realistic with what is going on in science

Answer 65

Synthetic and Analytical statements Synthetic = truth depends on factual matters, verified by observation Analytical = Truth depends on logical structure, verified by logical analysis

Answer 66

an idea or term that scientists use to explain and understand things that can't be directly seen or measured.

Answer 67

They represent logical fallacies and violate the principles of valid deductive reasoning. In a valid deductive argument, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true.

Answer 68

it is based on solid theoretical arguments that explain its intention and only denotes any cases of the concept in reality. Concepts in social science tend to have a complex structure.

Answer 69

Seeks unity of science ideal using synthetic and analytic statements uses logical reduction of synthetic statements to observations to unify scientific knowledge

Answer 70

They make up the properties of a concept. E.g. firm performance: firm performance affects employee growth, profitability, revenue growth and shareholder returns

Answer 71

They are made up of their respective properties. E.g. Democracy: democracy entails free elections, the role of law, freedom of speech, etc. --> we should ask ourselves "why do we include these criteria in the definition of democracy in the first place?" --> the reason for this is rooted in normative theory (normative theory does not reflect reality itself but what we think it ought to be)

Answer 72

Reflective concepts

Answer 73

New information can change the truth value of the conclusion

Answer 74

Deduction is an analytical transformation of what we already know, while induction is not. Induction is invalid logic, which is not truth-preserving.

Answer 75

The less empirical content the more likely it is to be true

Answer 76

Wrong Example: "can we say something about unobserved cases of X or about the truth or falsify general laws about X, based on observed cases of Y?"

Answer 77

e.g. talking about how individuals engage in crime to maintain balance in society (functional explanation) --> we assume that the higher order of the society is at play

Answer 78

rationalist: develops theories that reflect maximal amounts of empirical content critical: the empirical testing of these theories as sharply as possible (falsification)

Answer 79

It should be an open system

Answer 80

Correspondence theory of truth --> truth of a statement depends on how much what corresponds to reality (truth of synthetic statements) Coherency theory of truth --> truth of a statement depends on its coherency to what we already know (truth of analytical statements, logic & math) Consensus theory of truth --> Truth is what we collectively agreed upon Pragmatic theory of truth --> Truth depends on pragmatic considerations

Answer 81

1. Confusion of cause & effect : "Birds have wings because they need to fly." This explanation may imply that the need to fly caused the development of wings, when in reality, it is the presence of wings that enables birds to fly. The function (flying) is an outcome of the trait (wings), not necessarily its cause. 2. Assumption of a Higher order at play: For instance, asserting that a particular trait evolved because it enhances an organism's survival might overlook other factors, such as historical constraints, genetic drift, or non-adaptive processes. Functional explanations may oversimplify the complex processes involved in evolution and adaptation. 3. assumes that explanans are a necessary condition "the function of the appendix is to aid in digestion" might imply that the appendix is present in the human body solely for this purpose. However, if some individuals can live without an appendix without significant consequences, it challenges the idea that the identified function is a necessary condition for the existence of the trait

Answer 82

A typology of meta-theories refers to a classification or categorization of different ways in which theories about theories, known as meta-theories, can be organized or grouped.

Answer 83

1. ontological questions What is the basic unit of analysis (individualism or social holism) * Individual is the one thing that exists. Org actions are at best derivative of individual actions. * We accept the existence of organizations like firms as reality (social reality) 2. Epistemological questions What type of explanation should we strive for? Can we separate positive and normative explanatory ambitions?

Answer 84

Explaining: taking the outsiders perspective Understanding: taking the internal perspective of a participant

Answer 85

Explanatory model, explaining behaviour and social-level outcomes (e.g. institutions) from the rational choices of individual agents Assumptions: 1. Explanations always start from the choices of individual agents: methodological individualism 2. Agents are fully self-interested 3. Agents are perfectly rational This theory has both positive (explaining) and normative (justificatory) ambitions

Answer 86

The finding that people are more likely to retain an object they own than acquire the same object when they don't own it

Answer 87

-illustrates decision-making scenarios like the prisoner's dilemma - Aims for efficient solutions beneficial to all parties involved

Answer 88

1. Causal: this explanation uses cause & effect 2. Logical: Providing reasons based on logical principles or rules. It involves demonstrating how conclusions follow logically from premises 3. Explaining something by highlighting its purpose or the role it plays in a larger system. It answers the question, "What is this for?"

Answer 89

Explanandum: The ground is wet. Explanan: It rained last night. --> the explanandum is the wet ground, and the explanan is the statement that it rained last night, providing a causal explanation for why the ground is wet.

Answer 90

Suggests looking at individual's actions to explain social phenomena

Answer 91

Collective intentionality is a concept in philosophy that refers to the shared intentions, beliefs, or attitudes of a group of individuals. It involves understanding how groups or collectives can have a form of intentionality that goes beyond the intentions of individual members. In other words, it explores how groups, as such, can have goals, plans, and actions that are distinct from the intentions of their individual members.

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