Week 1 Flashcards
What does scientific knowledge focus on?
The knowledge of generalisable rules, patterns, and laws
What does everyday knowledge focus on?
More about specifics than the general picture
What does science want to do?
Explain and understand phenomena
5 characteristics of scientific knowledge
Generalisability, Controllability, Objectivity, Recognised Methods, Parsimony
Generalisability (definition)
To explain and understand phenomena
Controllability (definition)
Research has to be repeatable and and transparent
Recognised Methods (definition)
- Knowledge must consist of justified and correct beliefs
-A belief may be justified & false, or unjustified but true
Parsimony (definition)
–> the simplest explanation is the most powerful explanation as generalisable structures are easier to understand than complex phenomena
Concept of scrutiny (repeatability)
The idea that for a theory to be scientific, another scholar must be able to repeat the research and reach the same conclusion
Misconception in management science 1: “Only empirical research counts as scientific research”
–> conceptual analysis is equally important as the collection of data and the evaluation
-e.g. theoretical intangible concepts (e.g, organisation) cannot be observed directly/empirically
Theoretical concepts (definition & example)
Concepts that require thorough philosophical thinking and logic to understand meaning
-e.g. ‘organisation’, ‘market’ and ‘management’
Empirical (definition)
based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic
POV of positivists vs modern philosophers
Positivists: the empirical method is the only valid position
Modern philosophers: positivists view is deeply flawed
Misconception in management science 2: Scientific research is descriptive, not prescriptive or normative
-In management science, knowledge is also prescriptive
-Thus: studies ultimately want to point out what types of organisation, governance and management re best in certain circumstances
- what is best = what is most successful
-success can be interpreted in various ways: e.g. profitability, survivals added value
The good reason model of truth
According to the model go good reason of truth:
A claim is true only if…
…it is supported by a balance of motivations
…the arguments in favour outweigh the arguments against the claim
…counterarguments are outweighed by the conclusive reason
Argumentum ad ignorantiam
fallacy in which someone argues that something is true because there is no proof of the opposite
(e.g. ‘God exists because there is no proof that god doesn’t exist’)
Petitio principii
- Many arguments contain this
- = hidden circular reasoning
- refers to the case in which the claim that one has to prove is secretly taken for granted in one of the premises
The false dilemma fallacy
-when an argument offers a false range of choices to pick from
- other choices are left out because they could undermine the original claim
e.g. false dilemma with only 2 choices presented of the 3 (called trilemma)
Fallacies (definition)
Defects in an argument that cause it to be invalid or weak
In which 3 different manners is the question of ‘What is reasonable?” understood
- It is a methodological question: a question about the correct methods of argumentation and research
-It is an epistemological question: a question about the state of acquired knowledge
- It is an ontological question: a question about the nature of the (social) reality
Methodology
The best research methods in every discipline
Representativity heuristic (shortcut)
- most people reason by it
- assumption that the more a person/situation appears to represent the characteristics of a particular type, the higher the chance that the person/situation indeed is that type, without looking at statistical distributions of chances
-often: stereotyping & intuition proved answers
-BUT: intuition is neither verifiable nor controllable & therefore not used in scientific research
Epistemology (definition)
Epistemology deals with the status of knowledge acquired and is concerned with when something is an opinion, suspicion or whether it is knowledge
What does the homo economicus seek?
maximum preference satisfaction, which is ordered and is able to calculate which choice in the market will result in maximal preference satisfaction
Ontology (definition)
In ontology, assumptions are made concerning the nature of reality. Central question: how do entities and phenomena exist in reality?
Social reality vs the reality studied in natural sciences (explained with examples)
e.g. monetary value
–>monetary value is not studied in natural science reality. Social reality: 20$=20$, NS reality: 20$=a piece of paper
–> some objects in natural reality are independent of humans (e.g. rocks), while objects in social reality are dependent on human (e.g. fame, power, money)
Realism vs Idealism
Realism: assumes that objects and phenomena are independent of the observers and that the perceptions of reality have already been formed. –> reality is experienced in a pre-shaped way
Idealism: POV that assumes that all-natural phenomena are nothing more than ideas or mental representations that we project into reality
The concept of being ecumenical
we require several ways to categorise and conceptualise the social reality
Kantian realism
- objective knowledge is only possible because the brain observers and forms things a certain way –> not a mere passive registration of what happens outside of us
- observations based on coordinates of time and place to get grip on reality
-knowledge does not passively occur through observations (–> observation is a pre-shaped activity) - reality exists even without observations –> this independent reality is not perceived as knowledge by humans
What are the two misconceptions in management science?
- Only empirical research is considered scientific (–> conceptual analysis is equally vital)
- Science is only descriptive, not prescriptive or normative (–> management science involves prescriptive knowledge)
Explain the need for multiple perspectives
- no preferred way of studying reality, the best approach depends on the study’s purpose
- Being ecumenical, and considering various ways to categorise and conceptualise social reality, is crucial
Kantian Realism and Perspective Dependence
- Different perspectives, like those of a veterinarian and a chemist, lead to varied interpretations of the same phenomenon
In which 2 ways do we think?
Intuitive thinking (fast thinking) - fast but reliable
Logical, deliberate thinking - slow but reliable
Philosophical thinking
A way of thinking about the world, the universe & society
Ontology (in simple)
A study of existence and reality
Difference between ontology and epistemology
> ontology: the theory of being (–> does God exist?)
epistemology: how can we acquire knowledge about being there (–> how can we know if God exists?)
Causality
explaining an outcome y in terms of the necessary and/or sufficient conditions X for Y to take place
Steps in a scientific experiment (management science)
- Form initial hypothesis: X–> Y
-Collect data on X,Y, & control variables
-Use statistics to establish correlation
-Why Y? –> because X causes Y
Counterfactual theory of causation
If we can observe Y, it must have been caused by X
(it only provides one dominant explanation, the causal one (often used in inorganic matter))
Truth preservation
with a logically valid argument, true premises always lead to true conclusions –> if not all premises are true we don’t know if the conclusion is true
