Week 1

Question 1

What does scientific knowledge focus on?

Answer 1

The knowledge of generalisable rules, patterns, and laws

Question 2

What does everyday knowledge focus on?

Answer 2

More about specifics than the general picture

Question 3

What does science want to do?

Answer 3

Explain and understand phenomena

Question 4

5 characteristics of scientific knowledge

Answer 4

Generalisability, Controllability, Objectivity, Recognised Methods, Parsimony

Question 5

Generalisability (definition)

Answer 5

To explain and understand phenomena

Question 6

Controllability (definition)

Answer 6

Research has to be repeatable and and transparent

Question 7

Recognised Methods (definition)

Answer 7

• Knowledge must consist of justified and correct beliefs
  -A belief may be justified & false, or unjustified but true

Question 8

Parsimony (definition)

Answer 8

–> the simplest explanation is the most powerful explanation as generalisable structures are easier to understand than complex phenomena

Question 9

Concept of scrutiny (repeatability)

Answer 9

The idea that for a theory to be scientific, another scholar must be able to repeat the research and reach the same conclusion

Question 10

Misconception in management science 1: “Only empirical research counts as scientific research”

Answer 10

–> conceptual analysis is equally important as the collection of data and the evaluation
-e.g. theoretical intangible concepts (e.g, organisation) cannot be observed directly/empirically

Question 11

Theoretical concepts (definition & example)

Answer 11

Concepts that require thorough philosophical thinking and logic to understand meaning
-e.g. ‘organisation’, ‘market’ and ‘management’

Question 11

Empirical (definition)

Answer 11

based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic

Question 12

POV of positivists vs modern philosophers

Answer 12

Positivists: the empirical method is the only valid position

Modern philosophers: positivists view is deeply flawed

Question 13

Misconception in management science 2: Scientific research is descriptive, not prescriptive or normative

Answer 13

-In management science, knowledge is also prescriptive
-Thus: studies ultimately want to point out what types of organisation, governance and management re best in certain circumstances
- what is best = what is most successful
-success can be interpreted in various ways: e.g. profitability, survivals added value

Question 14

The good reason model of truth

Answer 14

According to the model go good reason of truth:
A claim is true only if…
…it is supported by a balance of motivations
…the arguments in favour outweigh the arguments against the claim
…counterarguments are outweighed by the conclusive reason

Question 15

Argumentum ad ignorantiam

Answer 15

fallacy in which someone argues that something is true because there is no proof of the opposite

(e.g. ‘God exists because there is no proof that god doesn’t exist’)

Question 16

Petitio principii

Answer 16

• Many arguments contain this
• = hidden circular reasoning
• refers to the case in which the claim that one has to prove is secretly taken for granted in one of the premises

Question 17

The false dilemma fallacy

Answer 17

-when an argument offers a false range of choices to pick from
- other choices are left out because they could undermine the original claim

e.g. false dilemma with only 2 choices presented of the 3 (called trilemma)

Question 18

Fallacies (definition)

Answer 18

Defects in an argument that cause it to be invalid or weak

Question 19

In which 3 different manners is the question of ‘What is reasonable?” understood

Answer 19

• It is a methodological question: a question about the correct methods of argumentation and research

-It is an epistemological question: a question about the state of acquired knowledge

• It is an ontological question: a question about the nature of the (social) reality

Question 20

Methodology

Answer 20

The best research methods in every discipline

Question 21

Representativity heuristic (shortcut)

Answer 21

• most people reason by it
• assumption that the more a person/situation appears to represent the characteristics of a particular type, the higher the chance that the person/situation indeed is that type, without looking at statistical distributions of chances
  -often: stereotyping & intuition proved answers

-BUT: intuition is neither verifiable nor controllable & therefore not used in scientific research

Question 22

Epistemology (definition)

Answer 22

Epistemology deals with the status of knowledge acquired and is concerned with when something is an opinion, suspicion or whether it is knowledge

Question 22

What does the homo economicus seek?

Answer 22

maximum preference satisfaction, which is ordered and is able to calculate which choice in the market will result in maximal preference satisfaction

Question 23

Ontology (definition)

Answer 23

In ontology, assumptions are made concerning the nature of reality. Central question: how do entities and phenomena exist in reality?

Question 24

Social reality vs the reality studied in natural sciences (explained with examples)

Answer 24

e.g. monetary value
–>monetary value is not studied in natural science reality. Social reality: 20$=20$, NS reality: 20$=a piece of paper

–> some objects in natural reality are independent of humans (e.g. rocks), while objects in social reality are dependent on human (e.g. fame, power, money)

Question 25

Realism vs Idealism

Answer 25

Realism: assumes that objects and phenomena are independent of the observers and that the perceptions of reality have already been formed. –> reality is experienced in a pre-shaped way

Idealism: POV that assumes that all-natural phenomena are nothing more than ideas or mental representations that we project into reality

Question 26

The concept of being ecumenical

Answer 26

we require several ways to categorise and conceptualise the social reality

Question 26

Kantian realism

Answer 26

• objective knowledge is only possible because the brain observers and forms things a certain way –> not a mere passive registration of what happens outside of us
• observations based on coordinates of time and place to get grip on reality
  -knowledge does not passively occur through observations (–> observation is a pre-shaped activity)
• reality exists even without observations –> this independent reality is not perceived as knowledge by humans

Question 27

What are the two misconceptions in management science?

Answer 27

1. Only empirical research is considered scientific (–> conceptual analysis is equally vital)
2. Science is only descriptive, not prescriptive or normative (–> management science involves prescriptive knowledge)

Question 28

Explain the need for multiple perspectives

Answer 28

• no preferred way of studying reality, the best approach depends on the study’s purpose
• Being ecumenical, and considering various ways to categorise and conceptualise social reality, is crucial

Question 29

Kantian Realism and Perspective Dependence

Answer 29

• Different perspectives, like those of a veterinarian and a chemist, lead to varied interpretations of the same phenomenon

Question 30

In which 2 ways do we think?

Answer 30

Intuitive thinking (fast thinking) - fast but reliable
Logical, deliberate thinking - slow but reliable

Question 31

Philosophical thinking

Answer 31

A way of thinking about the world, the universe & society

Question 32

Ontology (in simple)

Answer 32

A study of existence and reality

Question 33

Difference between ontology and epistemology

Answer 33

> ontology: the theory of being (–> does God exist?)
epistemology: how can we acquire knowledge about being there (–> how can we know if God exists?)

Question 34

Causality

Answer 34

explaining an outcome y in terms of the necessary and/or sufficient conditions X for Y to take place

Question 35

Steps in a scientific experiment (management science)

Answer 35

• Form initial hypothesis: X–> Y
  -Collect data on X,Y, & control variables
  -Use statistics to establish correlation
  -Why Y? –> because X causes Y

Question 36

Counterfactual theory of causation

Answer 36

If we can observe Y, it must have been caused by X
(it only provides one dominant explanation, the causal one (often used in inorganic matter))

Question 37

Truth preservation

Answer 37

with a logically valid argument, true premises always lead to true conclusions –> if not all premises are true we don’t know if the conclusion is true