WEEK 2

Question 1

Define ‘Classical Conditioning’

Answer 1

Classical conditioning involves the learning of associations between two otherwise unrelated stimuli, e.g. the ringing of a bell and delivery of food. Once the association is established, a conditioned response will occur in response to a previously neutral stimulus, e.g. a dog salivating when a bell is rung.
This form of conditioning was first noted by Ivan Pavlov

Question 2

Define ‘Operant conditioning’

Answer 2

Operant conditioning occurs when an organism learns that a particular behaviour will produce a consequence within their environment. If the behaviour produces a positive outcome, the behaviour is likely to increase in frequency; whereas if the behaviour produces a negative outcome, it is likely to decrease in frequency. Outcomes that increase the frequency of a behaviour are called reinforcers.

Question 3

Define ‘habituation’

Answer 3

The process of adapting to stimuli that do not change

e.g. wearing the same perfume each day for several weeks, to the point where you don’t notice the smell

Question 4

Define ‘opponent process theory’

Answer 4

Conditioned responses to stimuli associated with administration of a drug tends to elicit responses that counteract the effects of the drug. It posits that emotional experiences are often followed by opposing emotional reactions, leading to a gradual return to emotional equilibrium.

E.g. experiencing a high level of excitement on a roller coaster, then feelings of relaxation and relief after the ride levels out.

For example: Stimuli associated with administration of a drug can elicit conditioned withdrawal responses

Question 5

Define ‘sensitisation’

Answer 5

Exposure to a strong stimulus will reinitiate response to a habituated cue

For example: Every sound we hear will keep us awake if we have just watched a movie marathon of horror films

Question 6

Define ‘unconditioned stimulus’

Answer 6

A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning

E.g. Pollen from grass and flowers, causing you to sneeze

Question 7

Define ‘conditioned response’ (CR)

Answer 7

The response that the conditioned stimulus elicits

Question 8

Define ‘conditioned stimulus’ (CS)

Answer 8

the originally neutral stimulus that, through pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned
response

E.G. Kids leaving a classroom when they hear the bell

Question 9

Define ‘unconditioned response’

Answer 9

The automatic or unlearned response to stimuli

Question 10

Define ‘extinction’

Answer 10

The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response or operant behaviour when a conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by an unconditioned stimulus

For example: A child visits the doctor’s office several times for a check-up but does not receive an injection. Fear may eventually cease

Question 11

Define ‘reconditioning’

Answer 11

The quick relearning of a conditioned response following extinction

Question 12

Define ‘spontaneous recovery’

Answer 12

The reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction and without further pairings of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

Question 13

Define ‘stimulus generalisation’

Answer 13

a phenomenon in which a conditioned response is elicited by stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus

For example: A child fears doctors offices and places that smell like them

Question 14

Define ‘stimulus descrimination’

Answer 14

A process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one

For example: A child learns that his mother’s doctor’s office is not associated with the UCS

Question 15

Define ‘higher-order conditioning’

Answer 15

a phenomenon in which a conditioned stimulus acts as an unconditioned stimulus, creating conditioned stimuli out of events associated with it

e.g. PTSD

Question 16

Define ‘acquisition’

Answer 16

A neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus are paired. The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response

For example: A child learns to fear (CR) the doctor’s office (CS) by associating it with the reflexive emotional reaction (UCR) to a painful injection (UCS)

Question 17

Define ‘law of effect’

Answer 17

A law stating that if a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is followed by satisfaction, that response is more likely the next time the stimulus is encountered

Question 18

Define ‘operant’

Answer 18

A response that has some effect on the world

Question 19

Define ‘reinforcer’

Answer 19

A stimulus event that increases the probability that the response that immediately preceded it will occur again

Question 20

Define ‘escape conditioning’

Answer 20

a type of learning in which an organism learns to make a particular response in order to terminate an aversive stimulus

e.g. a child who has an alarm clock that makes a loud and annoying noise every morning. The child wants to stop the noise as quickly as possible, so they learn to use escape conditioning. Over time, the child learns that pressing the button to turn off the alarm is an effective way to escape the unpleasant sound. As a result, they are more likely to repeat this behaviour in the future to avoid the aversive stimulus.

Question 21

Define ‘avoidance conditioning’

Answer 21

a type of learning in which an organism responds to a signal in a way that prevents exposure to an aversive stimulus

e.g. you are training a dog, Bella, using avoidance conditioning to prevent her from barking excessively. You want to teach Bella to stop barking when you give her a command.
avoidance conditioning is used to teach Bella to avoid the aversive stimulus (shock) by performing the desired behaviour (stopping barking) when given the appropriate command. Over time, Bella learns to associate her behaviour with the avoidance of an unpleasant consequence.

Question 22

Define ‘discriminative conditioned stimuli’

Answer 22

stimuli that signal whether reinforcement is available if a certain response is made

e.g. Many parents find that the sound of their own baby whimpering during the night may become a CS that triggers a CR that wakes them up. That CR might not occur if a visiting friend’s baby whimpers.

Question 23

Define ‘shaping’

Answer 23

the process of reinforcing responses that come successively closer to the desired response

Question 24

Define ‘primary and secondary reinforcers

Answer 24

Primary: reinforcers that meet an organism’s basic needs, such as food and water

Secondary: a reward that people or animals learn to like; sometimes called conditioned reinforcers

Question 25

Define ‘continuous reinforcement’

Answer 25

a pattern in which a reinforcer is delivered every time a particular response occurs

Question 26

Define ‘partial reinforcement’

Answer 26

a pattern in which a reinforcer is administered only some of the time after a particular response occurs; also called a partial, or intermittent, reinforcement schedule

Question 27

Name and define the different schedules of reinforcement

Answer 27

Fixed-ratio (FR) reinforcement- a partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement following a fixed number of responses
E.G. a dressmaker is being paid $500 after every 10 dresses that they make. After sending off a shipment of 10 dresses, they are reinforced with $500. They are likely to take a short break immediately after this reinforcement before they begin producing dresses again.

variable-ratio (VR) reinforcement- a partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after a varying number of responses
E.G. pokies

fixed-interval (FI) reinforcement- a partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement for the first response that occurs after some fixed time has passed since the last reward
E.G. a teacher giving students a weekly quiz every Monday.

Over the weekend, there is suddenly a flurry of studying for the quiz. On Monday, the students take the quiz and are reinforced for studying (positive reinforcement: receive a good grade; negative reinforcement: do not fail the quiz).
For the next few days, they are likely to relax after finishing the stressful experience until the next quiz date draws too near for them to ignore.

variable-interval (VI) reinforcement a partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement for the first response after varying periods of time
e.g. A pigeon in Skinner’s box has to peck a bar in order to receive a food pellet. It is given a food pellet after varying time intervals ranging from 2-5 minutes.

Question 28

Define ‘latent learning’

Answer 28

Learning that is not demonstrated at the time it occurs

e.g. a teenager observes the way his father cleans his car. several decades later, when he has children of his own, he repeats those same instructions to his child

Question 29

Define ‘observational learning’

Answer 29

Learning how to perform new behaviours by watching others

Question 30

Define ‘vicarious experience’

Answer 30

conditions that allow us to learn by watching what happens to others