week 13

Question 1

What was the revolutionary change in the concept of information brought about by information theorists like Shannon and Weaver?

Answer 1

Shannon and Weaver revolutionized the concept of information by proposing a way to measure the amount of information transmitted when an event occurs. This idea was based on the principle that communicative acts provide information only as they reduce ignorance or uncertainty about the state of things.

Question 2

How is the amount of information quantified in terms of ‘bits’?

Answer 2

The amount of information is quantified in terms of ‘bits’, where ‘bit’ is short for ‘binary digit’. The concept is that each time the number of equally likely alternatives doubles, the number of bits goes up by one. For instance, flipping an unbiased coin with two equally likely outcomes provides one bit of information.

Question 3

What is the significance of the example involving guessing a number between 1 and 8 in understanding information theory?

Answer 3

This example illustrates how the concept of bits corresponds to the number of questions needed to find the right answer. It demonstrates how the process of reducing possibilities by half with each question can quantify the amount of information in terms of bits.

Question 4

How does cognitive psychology view the concept of information differently from communication engineers?

Answer 4

In cognitive psychology, the concept of information goes beyond the quantitative definition used by communication engineers. Psychological experiments must also take into account the meaning of the information presented to participants, not just the quantity of information transmitted.

Question 5

Discuss Noam Chomsky’s contribution to understanding human language.

Answer 5

Noam Chomsky argued that behaviorist principles could not explain significant aspects of language, such as the inherent creativity in natural language. He proposed that the ability to generate new sentences and the understanding of grammar are intrinsic to human language and cannot be explained by behaviorist stimulus-response theories.

Question 6

What is the TOTE model and its significance in cognitive psychology?

Answer 6

TOTE, standing for Test-Operate-Test-Exit, is a model that describes a feedback loop mechanism in behavior. It suggests that actions are initiated by testing an input against a standard, operating to reduce discrepancies, and exiting the routine once the standard is met. This model is significant in understanding cognitive processes and behavioral control.

Question 7

Discuss the concept of ‘Subjective Behaviourism’ as proposed by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram.

Answer 7

‘Subjective Behaviourism’ is a concept that combines objective behavioral methods with subjective approaches like ‘thinking aloud’. It attempts to investigate internal cognitive processes while maintaining the rigor of empirical validation.

Question 8

Describe the ‘New Look’ in perception introduced by Jerome Bruner.

Answer 8

The ‘New Look’ in perception, initiated by Jerome Bruner, focused on the joint function of the stimulus and the state of the organism in perception. It explored how needs, interests, and past experiences influence perceptual organization.

Question 9

How did Ulric Neisser contribute to cognitive psychology?

Answer 9

Ulric Neisser is considered a pivotal figure in cognitive psychology. He proposed that cognitive processes resemble computer programs and focused on information processing, pattern recognition, and the icon concept in cognition.

Question 10

What is the core idea of Sir Frederic Bartlett’s theory in cognitive psychology?

Answer 10

Bartlett’s theory in cognitive psychology centered around the concept of schemas as active organizations of past reactions. He emphasized that memory and cognition are not mere replays of past experiences but are dynamic and adaptable to current situations.

Question 11

Explain Herbert A. Simon’s views on computer simulation in cognitive psychology.

Answer 11

Herbert A. Simon, a pioneer in artificial intelligence, believed that cognitive processes could be simulated using computer programs. He emphasized that cognitive models should be modular and adaptable to different situations, akin to computer algorithms.

Question 12

What is the ‘Heuristics and Biases’ program by Kahneman and Tversky?

Answer 12

The ‘Heuristics and Biases’ program by Kahneman and Tversky explores how people use mental shortcuts (heuristics) that can lead to systematic errors (biases) in judgment and decision-making. It investigates the influence of intuitive reasoning in cognitive processes.

Question 13

Discuss the concept of ‘Ecological Validity’ in cognitive psychology.

Answer 13

: ‘Ecological Validity’ refers to the extent to which cognitive research reflects real-world situations. It emphasizes the importance of studying cognition in natural, culturally significant settings to better understand human behavior and thought processes.

Question 14

How did Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman contribute to the understanding of judgment and choice?

Answer 14

Tversky and Kahneman significantly influenced the study of judgment and choice by demonstrating how people often rely on heuristics, leading to predictable biases in decision-making. Their work illuminated the cognitive processes underlying judgment and choice.

Question 15

What was the revolutionary change in the concept of information brought about by information theorists like Shannon and Weaver?

Answer 15

Shannon and Weaver revolutionized the concept of information by proposing a way to measure the amount of information transmitted when an event occurs. This idea was based on the principle that communicative acts provide information only as they reduce ignorance or uncertainty about the state of things.

Question 16

How is the amount of information quantified in terms of ‘bits’?

Answer 16

The amount of information is quantified in terms of ‘bits’, where ‘bit’ is short for ‘binary digit’. The concept is that each time the number of equally likely alternatives doubles, the number of bits goes up by one. For instance, flipping an unbiased coin with two equally likely outcomes provides one bit of information.

Question 17

What is the significance of the example involving guessing a number between 1 and 8 in understanding information theory?

Answer 17

This example illustrates how the concept of bits corresponds to the number of questions needed to find the right answer. It demonstrates how the process of reducing possibilities by half with each question can quantify the amount of information in terms of bits.

Question 18

How does cognitive psychology view the concept of information differently from communication engineers?

Answer 18

In cognitive psychology, the concept of information goes beyond the quantitative definition used by communication engineers. Psychological experiments must also take into account the meaning of the information presented to participants, not just the quantity of information transmitted.

Question 19

Discuss Noam Chomsky’s contribution to understanding human language.

Answer 19

Noam Chomsky argued that behaviorist principles could not explain significant aspects of language, such as the inherent creativity in natural language. He proposed that the ability to generate new sentences and the understanding of grammar are intrinsic to human language and cannot be explained by behaviorist stimulus-response theories.

Question 20

What is the TOTE model and its significance in cognitive psychology?

Answer 20

TOTE, standing for Test-Operate-Test-Exit, is a model that describes a feedback loop mechanism in behavior. It suggests that actions are initiated by testing an input against a standard, operating to reduce discrepancies, and exiting the routine once the standard is met. This model is significant in understanding cognitive processes and behavioral control.

Question 21

Discuss the concept of ‘Subjective Behaviourism’ as proposed by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram.

Answer 21

‘Subjective Behaviourism’ is a concept that combines objective behavioral methods with subjective approaches like ‘thinking aloud’. It attempts to investigate internal cognitive processes while maintaining the rigor of empirical validation.

Question 22

What is the core idea of Sir Frederic Bartlett’s theory in cognitive psychology?

Answer 22

Bartlett’s theory in cognitive psychology centered around the concept of schemas as active organizations of past reactions. He emphasized that memory and cognition are not mere replays of past experiences but are dynamic and adaptable to current situations.

Question 23

Explain Herbert A. Simon’s views on computer simulation in cognitive psychology.

Answer 23

Herbert A. Simon, a pioneer in artificial intelligence, believed that cognitive processes could be simulated using computer programs. He emphasized that cognitive models should be modular and adaptable to different situations, akin to computer algorithms.

Question 24

What is the ‘Heuristics and Biases’ program by Kahneman and Tversky?

Answer 24

The ‘Heuristics and Biases’ program by Kahneman and Tversky explores how people use mental shortcuts (heuristics) that can lead to systematic errors (biases) in judgment and decision-making. It investigates the influence of intuitive reasoning in cognitive processes.

Question 25

Discuss the concept of ‘Ecological Validity’ in cognitive psychology.

Answer 25

‘Ecological Validity’ refers to the extent to which cognitive research reflects real-world situations. It emphasizes the importance of studying cognition in natural, culturally significant settings to better understand human behavior and thought processes.

Question 26

How did Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman contribute to the understanding of judgment and choice?

Answer 26

Tversky and Kahneman significantly influenced the study of judgment and choice by demonstrating how people often rely on heuristics, leading to predictable biases in decision-making. Their work illuminated the cognitive processes underlying judgment and choice.

Question 27

What is the main focus of Eugene Taylor’s paper regarding the history of clinical psychology in America?

Answer 27

The paper focuses on the problematic place of psychotherapy within scientific psychology and challenges the standard histories that imply psychotherapy derived from German laboratory science. It highlights the roots of personality, abnormal, social, and clinical psychology in an international psychotherapeutic alliance, particularly influenced by French neurophysiology.

Question 28

Who is often misattributed as the father of clinical psychology, according to the document?

Answer 28

Lightner Witmer is often misattributed as the father of clinical psychology.

Question 29

How does the document describe the early era of medical psychology in America?

Answer 29

The early era of medical psychology in America is described as a time when physiological psychology fused with psychical research, leading to experimental psychopathology and influencing the development of applied psychotherapeutics. This era was characterized by an international psychotherapeutic alliance and was influenced by French neurophysiology.

Question 30

What was the primary focus of Lightner Witmer’s work?

Answer 30

Lightner Witmer’s primary focus was on mentally defective children, and he played a significant role in the development of psychology in schools.

Question 31

Describe the role of psychotherapy in the history of clinical psychology as presented in the document.

Answer 31

Psychotherapy, originally called psychotherapeutics, played a crucial role in the development of clinical psychology. Contrary to the belief that it was a derivative of German psychophysics and English mental testing, it had diverse roots involving physiological psychology, neurology, and psychical research. The history of psychotherapy is intertwined with the broader history of clinical psychology, challenging the notion that clinical psychology is merely an applied form of experimental psychology.

Question 32

What does the document suggest about the diversity of backgrounds among pioneers in clinical psychology and psychotherapy?

Answer 32

The document suggests that pioneers in clinical psychology and psychotherapy came from diverse backgrounds, including not only psychology and neurology but also other disciplines like psychiatry, philosophy, and medicine. This diversity contributed to the rich development of the field.

Question 33

Explain the significance of the Boston School of Abnormal Psychology as mentioned in the document.

Answer 33

The Boston School of Abnormal Psychology, also known as the Boston School of Psychotherapy or Psychopathology, was a central hub for developments in scientific psychotherapy in the English-speaking world between 1880 and 1920. It comprised key figures like William James, Morton Prince, and Boris Sidis, who contributed significantly to the evolution of clinical psychology and psychotherapy.

Question 34

What was Aaron Beck’s original training, and how did his perspective shift in his work?

Answer 34

Aaron Beck was originally trained as a psychoanalyst. However, his perspective shifted when his research suggested that depression was caused by distorted thinking, rather than the psychoanalytic theory of anger-turned-inward.

Question 35

: Describe the primary focus of cognitive therapy as developed by Beck.

Answer 35

The primary focus of cognitive therapy, as developed by Beck, is on addressing and rectifying distorted thinking patterns, which are believed to contribute to emotional disorders like depression.

Question 36

What is the concept of “evidence-based practice” in clinical psychology?

Answer 36

Evidence-based practice in clinical psychology refers to the use of treatments that have been scientifically tested and proven effective for specific disorders. It emphasizes the importance of empirical research in guiding clinical practice.

Question 37

How did the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) differ from projective tests like the Rorschach?

Answer 37

The MMPI, created by Starke Hathaway, differs from projective tests like the Rorschach in that it relies purely on statistical data and objective measures rather than subjective clinical judgment. It uses first-person declarative statements to assess personality variables related to psychopathology.

Question 38

What significant changes did the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) introduce in psychiatric diagnosis?

Answer 38

The DSM-III marked a substantial shift in psychiatric diagnosis by defining disorders strictly in terms of symptoms, including their overall frequency and severity. It was atheoretical, meaning it did not refer to theories about the causes or development of symptoms, and introduced a new multiaxial system for assessment.

Question 39

Describe the impact of Carl Rogers’s work on the field of psychotherapy.

Answer 39

Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy based on his study of therapeutic factors that seemed to produce successful outcomes. His approach emphasized the therapist’s empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence in fostering a client’s self-growth and self-acceptance.