week 10

Question 1

What is the significance of Ivan Pavlov’s work in the development of behaviorism?

Answer 1

Pavlov’s work, particularly his experiments on conditioned reflexes, laid the foundational principles of classical conditioning, which became a cornerstone of behaviorism. His physiological approach to studying reflexes helped shift psychology towards observable behaviors.

Question 2

How did John Watson contribute to the development of behaviorism?

Answer 2

John Watson, often considered the father of behaviorism, shifted the focus of psychology to the study of observable behavior. He emphasized the importance of environmental factors in shaping behavior and conducted notable experiments like the Little Albert study.

Question 3

Describe the Behavioral Manifesto and its impact on psychology.

Answer 3

The Behavioral Manifesto, proposed by Watson in 1913, called for psychology to discard references to consciousness and focus solely on observable behavior. This manifesto greatly influenced the direction of psychological research and practice, emphasizing objective, measurable phenomena.

Question 4

Explain the concept of Logical Positivism and its relevance to behaviorism.

Answer 4

Logical Positivism, promoted by the Vienna Circle, posited that knowledge should be derived from observable and measurable events. This concept was aligned with the principles of behaviorism, which emphasized empirical, objective study of behavior.

Question 5

What are the ethical concerns raised by the Little Albert experiment?

Answer 5

The Little Albert experiment, conducted by Watson and Rayner, raised ethical concerns due to its use of fear conditioning on an infant. The study’s lack of informed consent and potential long-term psychological impacts on the child were major ethical issues.

Question 6

How did behaviorism and psychoanalysis differ in their approaches to understanding the mind and behavior?

Answer 6

Behaviorism focused on observable behavior and external environmental factors, while psychoanalysis delved into the unconscious mind, inner drives, and conflicts. Behaviorism rejected introspective methods, whereas psychoanalysis relied heavily on them.

Question 7

Discuss the role of behaviorism in the context of LGBTQ psychology.

Answer 7

In the context of LGBTQ psychology, behaviorism contributed to the development of controversial practices like aversion therapy, which aimed to change sexual orientation. Behaviorism viewed homosexuality as a learned behavior that could be unlearned or altered.

Question 8

What were the key findings of Evelyn Hooker’s research on homosexuality?

Answer 8

Evelyn Hooker’s groundbreaking study in the 1950s found no significant psychological differences between homosexual and heterosexual men. This research challenged the then-prevailing view of homosexuality as a mental disorder and contributed to its de-pathologization.

Question 9

How did the removal of homosexuality from the DSM in 1973 impact the perception of LGBTQ individuals?

Answer 9

The removal of homosexuality from the DSM in 1973 marked a significant shift in the understanding of LGBTQ individuals. It helped reduce the stigma associated with homosexuality and recognized it as a natural variation of human sexuality rather than a pathology

Question 10

Describe the evolution of LGBTQ psychology over the years.

Answer 10

LGBTQ psychology evolved from initially pathologizing homosexuality to de-pathologizing it, and then to recognizing and researching the diversity of LGBTQ identities. This evolution reflects broader societal changes and a growing understanding of sexual orientation and gender identity as complex and varied human experiences.

Question 11

Define Structuralism and explain its approach to studying the mind.

Answer 11

Structuralism is an approach to psychology that studies the mind’s contents through lab experiments and introspection. It focuses on the structures and biological aspects of the mind (the ‘what’ of psychology).

Question 12

What is Functionalism and how does it differ from Structuralism in its approach to psychology?

Answer 12

Functionalism involves direct observation and fieldwork to understand adaptive behavior. Unlike Structuralism, which focuses on the structures of the mind, Functionalism looks at the mind in terms of the functions it serves (the ‘why’).

Question 13

Describe the main focus of Psychoanalysis according to Freud.

Answer 13

Psychoanalysis, as developed by Freud, centers on unconscious drives and urges, with sexual libido being a driving force in development. It uses methods like free association to study the mind and is more oriented towards neurological terms compared to Structuralism or Functionalism.

Question 14

How did Ivan Pavlov’s approach to psychology differ from the introspective methods of his time?

Answer 14

Pavlov, a materialist, focused on external stimuli and physiological responses rather than introspective methods. He emphasized conditioning and learning, and believed that mental events could be reduced and explained by reflexes in our cortex.

Question 15

What impact did the Behavioral Manifesto have on the field of psychology?

Answer 15

The Behavioral Manifesto, proposed by John Watson, advocated for psychology to become a purely objective experimental branch of natural science, focusing solely on observable behavior. This manifesto played a significant role in shaping behaviorism and moving psychology away from introspective methods.

Question 16

Discuss the ethical considerations related to the Little Albert experiment.

Answer 16

The Little Albert experiment, which involved fear conditioning in an infant, raised ethical concerns due to the lack of informed consent, potential long-term psychological impacts on the child, and the use of fear as a stimulus. The experiment’s methodology and implications have been debated, with concerns about its validity and replication.

Question 17

How did the approaches of psychoanalysis and behaviorism to homosexuality differ?

Answer 17

Both psychoanalysis and behaviorism viewed homosexuality as a result of faulty learning or development, and believed it could be ‘cured.’ Behaviorism focused on ‘curing’ the wounds developed in childhood traumas, while psychoanalysis aimed at correcting supposed flaws in psychosexual development

Question 18

Explain B.F. Skinner’s concept of operant conditioning and its significance in behaviorism.

Answer 18

B.F. Skinner’s concept of operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviors are strengthened or weakened by rewards or punishments. This concept is significant in behaviorism as it provides a framework for understanding how behaviors are shaped by environmental factors.

Question 19

: How did Albert Bandura’s social learning theory expand upon traditional behaviorism?

Answer 19

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory expanded upon traditional behaviorism by introducing the concept of observational learning, where behaviors are learned by observing and imitating others. This theory emphasized the role of cognitive processes in learning, suggesting that internal mental states are crucial in understanding behavior.

Question 20

Discuss the role of aversion therapy in the context of LGBTQ psychology and its ethical implications.

Answer 20

Aversion therapy, used in the context of LGBTQ psychology, involved conditioning individuals to associate negative stimuli with homosexual urges in an attempt to change sexual orientation. This practice faced significant ethical criticism for its harmful psychological effects and the unethical treatment of LGBTQ individuals, reflecting a broader societal stigma.

Question 21

Describe the shift in the American Psychological Association’s stance on homosexuality from the 1970s onwards.

Answer 21

From the 1970s onwards, the American Psychological Association shifted its stance on homosexuality, acknowledging it as a normal variation of human sexuality and not a mental disorder. This change was influenced by research showing no inherent psychological impairment in homosexual individuals, leading to the removal of homosexuality from the DSM.

Question 22

What are the implications of behaviorism’s focus on observable behavior for understanding complex human experiences like sexuality and gender identity?

Answer 22

Behaviorism’s focus on observable behavior limits its ability to fully understand complex human experiences like sexuality and gender identity, which involve internal cognitions and emotions. This approach may oversimplify these experiences and overlook the significance of internal psychological processes and social-cultural factors.

Question 23

How did the research of Evelyn Hooker challenge prevailing notions about homosexuality in the mid-20th century?

Answer 23

Evelyn Hooker’s research in the 1950s, which found no significant psychological differences between homosexual and heterosexual men, challenged the then-prevailing notion of homosexuality as a mental disorder. Her work was instrumental in changing perceptions and contributed to the eventual removal of homosexuality from the DSM.

Question 24

In what ways did the development of cognitive psychology contrast with behaviorist principles?

Answer 24

Cognitive psychology, emerging as a reaction to behaviorism, focused on internal mental processes like memory, perception, and problem-solving, which behaviorism largely ignored. Unlike behaviorism, cognitive psychology emphasized the importance of understanding the ‘black box’ of the mind to fully comprehend human behavior.

Question 25

How does Watson view psychology, and what is its theoretical goal?

Answer 25

He views psychology as a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection does not play a role in its methods, and the scientific value of its data is not dependent on their interpretation in terms of consciousness.

Question 26

How does Watson view the traditional idea that psychology is the study of the science of the phenomena of consciousness?

Answer 26

The behaviourist challenges the traditional view that psychology is a study of the science of the phenomena of consciousness. Instead, the behaviorist asserts that the world of physical objects (stimuli) is seen merely as a means to an end – the production of mental states that can be observed. Behaviourists argue that psychology should focus on behavior rather than consciousness.

Question 27

What shift in perspective does Watson propose regarding the study of behaviour and consciousness?

Answer 27

He suggests that the study of the behaviour of animals should not be pursued with the assumption that consciousness is present or absent. Instead, it is proposed that behavior should be observed directly under experimental conditions without making assumptions about the consciousness of the subject.

Question 28

What criticism does Watson say about the current state of psychology’s approach to material selection and the study of behaviour?

Answer 28

He criticizes psychology for still being in a stage where it selectively discards processes not indicative of consciousness, suggesting that psychology is overly concerned with material selection, dismissing processes that are considered purely physiological and not directly related to consciousness.

Question 29

What does he propose regarding the role of consciousness in the study of psychology?

Answer 29

The time has come for psychology to discard all reference to consciousness. It argues that psychology should no longer delude itself into making mental states the object of observation, emphasizing the need to move away from speculative questions about the elements of the mind.

Question 30

What is the only consistent and logical form of functionalism, and how does it avoid certain pitfalls?

Answer 30

Behaviourism is the only consistent and logical form of functionalism. It avoids the pitfalls of parallelistic and interactionist hypotheses, providing a more straightforward and coherent framework for understanding behaviour.

Question 31

What does Watson propose as a more accurate approach to psychology, and how does it differ from the existing methods?

Answer 31

A psychology focused on behaviour, making it the objective point of investigation rather than consciousness. This approach involves maintaining uniformity in experimental procedures and results between human and animal subjects, emphasizing objective results over introspection.

Maintaining uniformity in experimental procedures and result presentation between human and animal work is crucial for a consistent and comparative approach. This allows for direct comparisons between different species, ensuring that the results are comparable and contribute to a better understanding of function across organisms.

Question 32

How does Watson argue for the behaviourist approach in studying memory?

Answer 32

Memory studies should focus on behaviorist principles, emphasizing factors like the rapidity of habit formation, errors, and persistence of habits formed. The goal is to understand how individuals shape responses to complex environments, emphasizing results over introspective reports.

Question 33

Was the 1970s a turning point in the field of psychology’s approach to sexuality and sexual minorities?

Answer 33

Yes, the period discussed, particularly around the mid-1970s, marked a significant turning point in how psychology viewed and approached sexuality, leading to the de-pathologization of homosexuality.

This time frame to contribute to a broader movement in the history of psychology, aiming to update the narrative and explore the recent history of the field, moving beyond the commonly emphasized events like the Stonewall uprising and the 1973 decision by the American Psychiatric Association.

Question 34

How did the social and political context of the 1960s and 1970s impact the field of psychology?

Answer 34

The social and political upheavals of the 1960s and 1970s, including the civil rights movement and protests against the Vietnam War, brought issues of social justice and inequality to the forefront of psychology. The discipline could no longer remain detached from the larger cultural and political movements of the time.

Question 35

Were there activist movements within the American Psychological Association related to issues of sexual minorities in the early 1970s?

Answer 35

Yes, there were activist protests within the American Psychological Association in 1973, leading to the formation of the Committee for Lesbian and Gay Concerns. This committee became part of the Board for Social and Ethical Responsibility in Psychology, established to address questions about bi-gender injustice and racial injustice within the field.

Question 36

What role did the Committee for Lesbian and Gay Concerns play in the broader context of psychology in the early 1970s?

Answer 36

The Committee for Lesbian and Gay Concerns, formed in the aftermath of activist protests in 1973, became part of the Board for Social and Ethical Responsibility in Psychology. This development reflected a growing awareness within psychology about addressing issues of gender and racial injustice.

Question 37

How did the removal of homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) impact psychiatry and psychology?

Answer 37

The removal of homosexuality from the DSM was a significant milestone in both psychiatry and psychology. It marked a shift away from a psychoanalytic approach and was influenced by activism targeting the American Psychiatric Association in the late 1960s.

The initial inclusion of homosexuality in the DSM codes in the 1950s was related to concerns within the American armed forces during World War II. The military used homosexuality as grounds for excluding soldiers, initially due to considerations of mental health and later as security risks.

Question 38

Why did the psychoanalytic basis of the DSM come under question in the 1970s?

Answer 38

In the 1970s, the psychoanalytic basis of the DSM was scrutinized, and activists like Barbara Gittings and Frank Kameny strategically targeted the APA. The rationale for considering many things as mental disorders, including homosexuality, became unstable, prompting calls for change.
Activists engaged in direct action, protests, and disruptive tactics to challenge the APA and the DSM’s classification of homosexuality. Their efforts contributed to initiating a vote among APA members regarding whether homosexuality should remain classified as a mental illness.

Question 39

When was homosexuality officially removed from the DSM, and what persisted in future versions?

Answer 39

Homosexuality was officially removed from the DSM in the early 1970s, with the next version published around 1980. However, the concept of “ego dystonic homosexuality” remained, allowing for practices like conversion therapy until the 1990s.

Question 40

How did Alfred Kinsey contribute to challenging the stereotype about homosexuality as a mental disorder?

Answer 40

Alfred Kinsey challenged the stereotype by conducting the Kinsey Studies, sampling widely across the U.S. to find people practicing homosexuality. His goal was to disprove the prevailing notion of a distinct homosexual personality and to highlight the diversity within the LGBTQ+ community.

Question 41

Who was Evelyn Hooker, and how did she approach challenging the psychiatric basis of mental health care?

Answer 41

Evelyn Hooker, an experimental psychologist, challenged psychiatric bases post-World War II. She critically examined psychological testing, particularly the Rorschach test. Notably, she conducted a controlled experiment showing no psychological differences between gay and straight men, challenging the assumptions of the time.
She demonstrated a paradigm shift by enlisting Bruno Klopfer, a Rorschach expert, to analyze results. Klopfer, realizing he couldn’t discern gay from straight profiles, exposed the flaws in the system that had traditionally pathologized homosexuality.

Question 42

How did the HIV/AIDS epidemic lead to changes in psychologists’ attitudes toward the LGBTQ+ community?

Answer 42

The HIV/AIDS epidemic forced psychologists to confront issues related to sexual orientation and stimulated a shift in attitudes. This period encouraged psychologists to think beyond heterosexist norms, fostering a more inclusive perspective. However, it also inadvertently led to a shift in research focus towards men, particularly influenced by the dominance of HIV/AIDS funding.

Question 43

Has psychology conducted significant research into bisexuality, and what challenges has this area faced in terms of recognition and understanding?

Answer 43

Bisexuality has often been overlooked in psychological research, with a tendency to reset and forget its significance. Challenges include a lack of sustained attention and acknowledgment. Despite sporadic studies, the groundhog day analogy reflects the persistent cycle of neglect and rediscovery. The Kinsey Scale provides a framework, but translating this into meaningful scientific findings about bisexuality is needed.

Question 44

In the quest for marriage equality, how crucial has psychological research been to legal victories, particularly in the U.S. context?

Answer 44

Psychological research has played a pivotal role in marriage equality victories in the U.S. The American Psychological Association (APA) has actively contributed through amicus briefs, leveraging research to advise courts on various LGBTQ+ rights issues. This strategy, initiated in the 1980s, has been particularly influential in the U.S. context, setting norms and emphasizing the importance of research in shaping legal outcomes.

Question 45

What role did the APA play in advocating for LGBTQ+ rights in legal battles, and how has this evolved over the years?

Answer 45

The APA has been actively involved in legal battles for LGBTQ+ rights, frequently submitting amicus briefs to advise courts. This engagement predates the marriage equality movement, encompassing issues like sodomy laws, equal employment, and parental rights. The trajectory set by the APA reflects a commitment to advancing LGBTQ+ rights through research-informed legal advocacy.

Question 46

How has psychological research contributed to challenging societal norms around LGBTQ+ relationships, particularly in the context of marriage equality?

Answer 46

chological research, particularly through amicus briefs, has challenged societal norms by emphasizing the similarities between same-sex and mixed-sex relationships. The research often mirrors Evelyn Hooker’s approach, demonstrating that relationships are fundamentally similar regardless of gender composition. This normalization of LGBTQ+ relationships has been influential in advancing marriage equality as a recognized and accepted societal norm.

Question 47

What’s the significant role played by Sue Wilkinson and Celia Kitzinger in the LGBTQ+ rights movement in Britain, particularly their Supreme Court case seeking recognition of their Canadian marriage?

Answer 47

Sue Wilkinson and Celia Kitzinger, a lesbian couple in Britain, made invaluable contributions to LGBTQ+ rights. They co-founded the Journal of Feminism and Psychology, established the Lesbian and Gay Section of the British Psychological Society, and conducted crucial qualitative research on women’s health and lesbian identity. In 2006, they brought a case to the Supreme Court seeking recognition of their Canadian marriage in the UK. Despite their loss, their efforts paved the way for subsequent changes in societal attitudes towards same-sex marriage.

Question 48

Reflecting on Ireland’s marriage referendum, how did the psychologically informed campaign, involving personal interactions and deep conversations, contribute to changing public opinion?

Answer 48

Ireland’s marriage referendum showcased the power of personally engaging with communities. The campaign prioritized face-to-face conversations, fostering deep reflections on the issue of same-sex marriage. This approach, distinct from relying solely on research findings, proved effective in influencing public opinion. The Irish example highlights that sustained, meaningful conversations can be instrumental in achieving lasting social change.

Question 49

What was the evidence found of discrimination in hiring decisions based on perceived sexual orientation from voice cues (auditory gaydar)?

Answer 49

Discrimination based on voice cues was stronger against lesbian-sounding women than gay-sounding men. This finding challenges preconceptions and raises questions about the dynamics of discrimination related to voice cues and sexual orientation. Ongoing research aims to delve deeper into understanding and addressing this conundrum.

The societal implications are significant, indicating that individuals may face biased hiring decisions due to perceived sexual orientation. Recognizing and addressing these biases is crucial for fostering inclusivity and combating discrimination in professional settings.

Question 50

How does the fear of discrimination based on voice cues vary between gay and straight women and men, and what insights does this provide into the broader societal perceptions of gaydar?

Answer 50

Gay men tend to fear it more than lesbians, and there’s a notable gender difference among straight individuals, with men expressing more concern. These findings offer insights into societal perceptions of gaydar, challenging stereotypes and highlighting the nuanced ways in which individuals, regardless of sexual orientation, navigate societal expectations and potential biases.

Question 51

In research on auditory gaydar, the finding that discrimination against lesbian-sounding women in leadership roles is more pronounced is surprising. How does this contradict societal expectations related to sexism and gender roles?

Answer 51

In leadership roles, where masculine attributes are often overvalued, one might assume that lesbian-sounding women, perceived as more “masculine,” would be favored. However, our research indicates a different trend – lesbian-sounding women faced more discrimination, suggesting that perceived sexual orientation, particularly for women, influences perceived competence negatively.

Question 52

How does the status variable of sexual orientation impact discrimination in leadership positions, and why is it crucial to consider this when addressing workplace biases?

Answer 52

Sexual orientation acts as a status variable, marking higher status for those perceived as heterosexual. In leadership positions, where traditional gender norms prevail, being straight is often associated with higher status. Recognizing sexual orientation as a status marker is crucial when addressing workplace biases. It sheds light on the landscape of discrimination individuals may face, prompting a more nuanced understanding of workplace dynamics and the need for inclusive policies.

Question 53

How can organizations mitigate biases related to auditory gaydar in hiring and professional interactions?

Answer 53

Mitigating biases related to auditory gaydar requires organizational awareness and education. Organizations should implement training programs to sensitize employees to biases associated with voice cues. Additionally, establishing inclusive hiring practices that prioritize qualifications over perceived sexual orientation can contribute to fostering a diverse and equitable workplace. Embracing diversity and educating employees about biases can create environments where individuals are evaluated based on qualifications rather than stereotypes.