Week 11 Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Examples of basidiomycetes include

Answer

A

rusts.

puffballs.

toadstools.

mushrooms,

Question 2

Q

The basidiomycete mycelium composed of monokaryotic hyphae is called the ________
mycelium, while that containing dikaryotic hyphae is called the _________
mycelium.

Answer

A

Primary

Secondary

Question 3

Q

What is the function of a basidiocarp?

Answer

A

To disperse spores

Question 4

Q

Sexual reproduction in ascomycetes involves the production of

Answer

A

haploid spores within an ascus.

Question 5

Q

The asexual spores produced by ascomycetes are called

Question 6

Q

Mushrooms and puffballs are examples of

Answer

A

Basidiomycetes.

Question 7

Q

How does the primary mycelium in Basidiomycota differ from that of the secondary mycelium?

Answer

A

The primary mycelium is made up of monokaryotic hyphae, while the secondary mycelium is composed of dikaryotic hyphae.

Question 8

Q

Ascomycetes produce sexual spores within a sac called a(n)

Answer

A

Blank 1: ascus

Question 9

Q

A puffball is an example of:which of the following?

Answer

A

A basidiocarp

Question 10

Q

In ascomycetes, sexual reproduction occurs within a microscopic, sac like structure called the

Question 11

Q

Ascomycete fungi that occur as single cells and reproduce by budding are called

Answer

A

Blank 1: yeasts or yeast

Question 12

Q

Which of the following statements correctly describes asexual reproduction in ascomycetes?

Answer

A

Hyphae produce conidia, which grow into genetically identical hyphae.

Question 13

Q

Which fungus is the most widely used model organism for fundamental biological studies?

Answer

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Question 14

Q

Select all true statements about the Glomeromycota.

Answer

A

They do not undergo sexual reproduction.

They form arbuscular mycorrhizae.

Question 15

Q

The sac that contains sexual spores in ascomycetes is called which of the following?

Question 16

Q

Most zygomycete fungi are which of the following?

Answer

A

Decomposers

Question 17

Q

What are yeasts?

Answer

A

Unicellular fungi

Question 18

Q

An important role of the ascomycete fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae is that it does which of the following?

Answer

A

Serves as a model organism

Question 19

Q

During asexual reproduction in zygomycetes, sporangia are produced on the tips of stalks called

Answer

A

sporangiophores.

Question 20

Q

Which of the following are glomeromycetes?

Answer

A

Mycorrhizae

Question 21

Q

Ascomycetes produce sexual spores within a sac called a(n)

Question 22

Q

Put the steps of zygomycete sexual reproduction in the right order. Start with the production of multinucleate gametangia at the top.

Answer

A

Hyphae produce multinucleate gametangia, gametangia fuse, karyogamy occurs and the zygosporangium develops, a dark and thick-walled zygospore develops, and meiosis occurs to produce haploid spores

Question 23

Q

Some zygomycetes are parasites of which of the following?

Answer

A

Plants and animals

Question 24

Q

Chytridiomycota are distinguished from other fungi because they possess flagellated _________
, released from a specialized structure called a chytridion.

Answer

A

zoospores

Question 25

Q

During asexual reproduction in zygomycetes, hyphae produce which of the following?

Answer

A

Sporangia

Question 26

Q

Select all true statements about the Glomeromycota.

Answer

A

They form arbuscular mycorrhizae.

They do not undergo sexual reproduction.

Question 27

Q

In the zygomycetes, which of the following is the product of fertilization?

Answer

A

A zygosporangium

Question 28

Q

Select the feature that distinguishes the chytridiomycota and relatives from the other groups of fungi.

Answer

A

Flagellated spores

Question 29

Q

How do the chytrids typically disperse spores?

Answer

A

The spores swim.

Question 30

Q

During asexual reproduction in zygomycetes, sporangia are produced on the tips of stalks called

Answer

A

sporangiophores

Question 31

Q

Select all true statements about blastoclads.

Answer

A

They have a haplodiplontic life cycle.

They produce zoospores.

Question 32

Q

Which of the following are glomeromycetes?

Answer

A

Mycorrhizae

Question 33

Q

Select all true statements about neocallimastigomycetes.

Answer

A

They are anaerobic.

They produce zoospores with multiple flagella

Question 34

Q

The parasitic fungi, microsporidia were thought to be ________ because of the absence of mitochondria.

Question 35

Q

What fungal group produces flagellated spores?

Question 36

Q

Which of the following lists features of blastoclads?

Answer

A

Haplodiplontic life cycle; zoospore with a single flagellum

Question 37

Q

Fungi in this phylum are anaerobic and produce zoospores.

Answer

A

Neocallimastigomycota

Question 38

Q

Which of the following is a characteristic of microsporidia?

Answer

A

They parasitize animal cells.

Question 39

Q

What are some examples of edible fungi species?

Answer

A

mushrooms
truffles etc
Cultivated mushrooms: Agaricus bisporus
Also processed foods made using fungi, either as a food or to process other foods

Question 40

Q

Outline some features of Agaricus bisporus?

Answer

A

–Worth £350 million p.a. in the UK
–Straw and manure composted
(microbial fermentation…)- Manure richer in nitrogen.
–Pasteurised
–“Spawned” inoculated using grain on which mycelium has developed

Question 41

Q

What does spawn run allow in fungus?

Answer

A

allow the fungus to grow through compost

Question 42

Q

Why is capping used to bring fungus into fruiting?

Answer

A

Capping – cover compost with peat/chalk mix to induce fruiting

Question 43

Q

Why is harvest used to bring fungus into fruiting?

Answer

A

Harvest – in flushes every 7 days

Question 44

Q

What does capping and harvest require?

Answer

A

Requires controlled temperature and humidity

Question 45

Q

What is “solid state” fermentation?

Answer

A

—Grow microbe on a solid substrate:closest to natural growth condition

–Mushrooms (harvest just the fungus)
–Very variable and difficult to control but low-tech so not expensive.
Breads
Cheeses
Soybean & rice products etc

Question 46

Q

Outline the properties of bread.

Answer

A

—Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)
—Aerobic respiration of the free sugars in bread, releases CO2, putting bubbles in the dough.
–Limited enzyme secretion alters the proteins responsible for the texture of the dough
–Yeast cells give additional flavour
–Too much salt/too cold stops yeast from growing and gives a hard flat bread!

Question 47

Q

outline the properties of cheese.

Answer

A

—Fungal rinds on cheeses: digest the cheese from the edge to the centre:
Brie, Camembert etc:
Penicillium camembertii

Question 48

Q

What is happening in to the fungus needed for cheese?

Answer

A

—The fungus secretes proteases: digests the casein, liquefying the cheese.
—Lipases to alter the lipid profile of the milk fats
Alters the taste and texture
—-Stilton/blue cheeses: (P. roquefortii)
grows within the cheese – inoculated as veins,low oxygen levels – slow growth,metabolite production and digestionof milk solids - altered taste

Question 49

Q

What are some other preserved products?

Answer

A

Salami and “moldy” sausages
High salt content and low water levels reduce microbial growth
Fungal rind helps prevent infection from the outside (as it does on maturing cheeses)

Question 50

Q

What group are Basidiomycetes?

Answer

A

are in the dikaryotic group and are typically thought of being mushrooms and toadstool but there is far more diversity.
– Within the Basidiomycetes you also have more microscopic forms e.g the jelly fungus which is commonly found on things like dead bits gorse or other timbers. The whole of the outside of the fungus is the reproductive SA highly folded up giving it more SA from where it can sporulate.

Question 51

Q

Name the properties of mushrooms and toadstools.

Answer

A

have a central stalk which is known as a stipe on top of this is the cap- usually circular. The cap gives a big surface area from which gills can hang underneath.
Circular (ish) cap – pileus
Supported by a stalk – stipe

Question 52

Q

What is bracket fungi?

Answer

A

Bracket fungi are within the Basidiomycetes it is a fungus that usually grows in standing timber- woods of different sorts. The fungus fruiting body is growing out from the timber getting a big surface area from which it can hang its gills and so produce spores.
Usually growing out of standing timber
Stipe not always present
Indicate a heart rot in the tree!

Question 53

Q

What are some properties of puffballs?

Answer

A

have cylindrical shaped fruiting bodies on a stalk and the spores are made inside that chamber.
If you touch the structure of the puff ball it sends a shock wave through the structure which puffs millions or even billions of spores out of the fruiting body. Massively productive in releasing spores.
Central cavity has a sponge-like texture, with basidia all over the exposed surfaces.Produces BILLIONS of basidiospores. Any disturbance leads to a puff of spores out of the fruiting body .

Question 54

Q

What are some properties of earthstars?

Answer

A

The earthstars have an outer casing around the spherical fruiting body.

Question 55

Q

What are some properties of casing peals?

Answer

A

The casing peals back showing the spherical structure in the middle. Typically grow in the leaf litter. Often found in the autumn.

Question 56

Q

What are the properties of rust diseases?

Answer

A

are plant pathogenic fungi, there are no large fruiting bodies made, they are single celled fruiting bodies.

Question 57

Q

What is the typical lifecycle of a mushroom?

Answer

A

Start of with hyphae in the soil coming from basidiospores. This single cell basidiospore will germinate that will give you a hypha that will be haploid. Those haploid hyphae will grow perfectly happily in the soil and can grow for a long time but if they bump into a sexually transmitting strain then mating will take place. You get fusion of the cytoplasm of the two hyphae giving you a dikaryotic mycelium. A mycelium where the two pairs of spores will grow together, staying together all the way through that mycelium. You don’t get nuclei fusion at that point so the cytoplasm fuse but the nuclei are maintained in pairs in this growing mycellium. When the conditions are right that fertile mycellium can then form a fruiting body and you get get a slight formation of a mushroom. And up grows the mushroom so all the mycellium in this mushroom are dikaryotic, that is they have two different nuclei inside each cellular compartment. It then produces the gills and on the surface of the gills on teh very most outer surface of the gills is where the two nuclei will fuse together and so you have this basidium outer cell in which the two haploid nuclei will fuse giving you the diploid nucleus. Goes through meiosis giving four nuclei inside that basidium cell. The nuclei then get pushed out the make spores on the outside of the body of the basidium. So you have four basidium spores made on the outside of the basdium. These basidious spores will get released into the air to spread around and start another colony. Sexual progany is made externally to the parent cell. Whereas in the ascomyocye the sex progany stayed inside the parent cell.

Question 58

Q

What are the properties of the spores on the outside?

Answer

A

The spores on the outside have an active release mechanism there’s a tiny little drop of water that rushes from one side of the stalk to the other and that momentum of the water drop moving across the spore is enough to lift the spore off of the stalk and move it into the air space between the gills and the mushroom so that they can then fall out under the power of gravity. Are some basidium like yeast that can shoot out their spores several cm using a active shooting method because of water drops moving across the spores.

Question 59

Q

What is a particular structure that is found in haploid Basidiomycetes?

Answer

A

you get this septum structure where you get some membranes around the septum, which has some sort of structures on either side of the pore that will regulate movement of things.

Question 60

Q

What do Basidiomycetes typically don’t have?

Answer

A

Typically the Basidiomycetes don’t have nuclei freely migrating through the septa. These septa don’t usually allow nuclei transmission through them and so you have membrane structures that can surround the septum again regulating movement through the septa.

Question 61

Q

What do both the pore and the membrane regulate?

Answer

A

Septum with septal pore swellings around it. Both the pore and the membrane can regulate movement so how nutrients and things move through the fungus

Question 62

Q

What happens once the fungus has mated?

Answer

A

so you have a dikaryon you often see things like clamp connections and these connections are swellings that remains on the side of the hypha when its going through its vegetative growth. You have a dikaryotic hyphae with two distinct nuclei inside. When these are going to divide they form the next cellular compartment a swelling starts coming out of the side of the hyphae. The two nuclei both go through mitosis at the same time and you get a complicated pattern nuclei movement where you have to nuclei in the hyphae tier, one nucleus in the side shoot and one in the main stalk in the fungus and then the wall dissolve away. By dissolving away they can move into the compartment together. Maintaining two nuclei in the stalk area and 2 in the hyphal tip. This grows and results in another clamp connection being formed.

Question 63

Q

What is the typical rust lifecycle?

Answer

A

Fungus grows on two different plant hosts, much of its lifecycle is done on wheat. Other parts of its lifecycle happen on barberry. Start with a diakaryotic spore which lands on the surface and grows in through the stomata and can give rise to pastures that have these rust spores. As it gets to late spring or autumn the fungus changes its behaviour. Instead of uredospores it produces teliospores. In these teliospores there are two cells and in each cell the two nuclei fuse together to form a diploid nucleus. These teliospores are effectively Basidiomycetes for the fungus and can survive adverse conditions and when they germinate they give rise to 4 basidious spores. This is where meiosis has taken place. These basidiospores can not infect wheat but can infect barberry. So they land on barberry and penetrate into the plant and produce another sporulating structure and in this case its spermagonia. The fungus has different mating types and the small spores being made here can fertilise the receptive hypha of other spermagonia. Allowing the dikaryotic to form and when it forms the fungus grows from the surface of the leave typically down to the lower part of the leaf where it produced a fruiting body called a aecium. And the aecium which gives rise to dikaryotic spores. Those spores land on a wheat leaf going through the stomata and then will start the asexual cycle in the uredospores again. You have five different spore types- uredospores, teliospores, basidiospores, spermatia and aeciospores. And its growing on two different species of plant. One on wheat and one on barberry.

Question 64

Q

What is mating controlled by?

Answer

A

mating types

Answer 59

A

n the rusts it is typically just two mating types A x alpha. When these mate the progeny that you get back will all be the same mating type to the parents. If the parents mates with an alpha the four progeny you get back will have two A and two alpha. In other Basidiomycetes, in the smuts and the true mushrooms you can have much more complicated systems. Where two different genetic loci are responsible for determining the mating type, so you can have an A locus and a B locus. To be able to mate the compatible partner has to be genetically different to both of those loci. So it has to have a different A allele and a different B allele. If A1B1 mated with A2B2 we can get 4 genotypes for the mating types of the resulting progeny. You get the two parental types A1B1 and A2B2 and then you get to the other mating types of A1B2 and A2B1. this is helpful in reducing certain mating because one of these will only be sexually compatable with one third of the other progeny. So the A1B1 wont be able to mate with the A1B2 because it has the A1 locus in common and wont be able to mate with the A2B1 because it has the same B locus in common. It will only be able to mate with A2B2 so it can produce sibling matings. But it gets more complicated because you can have over 30,000 different mating types. As long as they have different alleles at the A and B locus they will be able to mate. It means that if a fungus bumps into another unrelated individual it is likely able to mate as it is likely to meet something with completely different mating types.

Answer 60

A

many different ways

Answer 61

A

The gill tissue that is hanging down from the mushrooms have vertical hyphae in the middle of the gills as you get to the edge the hyphae become a little bit less regular and on the outer membrane. On the outer membrane you have the Basidium and has spores on the end. There are also cystidium- a sterile cell that help maintain the structure of the space between the gills.

Answer 62

A

Mushrooms can detect light will grow into the direction of light and once it has found it it will grow straight. They can also detect gravity. That matters because you want the gills vertically underneath the cap. By having vertical gills all the spores and released and nothing is lost. As soon as the gill is no longer vertical for example by 5 degrees 50% of the spores are lost

Answer 63

A

Some mushrooms dont have gills, some have spikes but its the same idea, the spikes have a very large surface area. The cap is the fruiting body and the teeth hang down beneath and give rise to spores. Puffballs make their spores inside- its a shock wave that makes them come out.

Answer 64

A

associations with trees and are often found under them.
Basidiomycetes forming those associations makes ectomycorrhizae where the hyphae stay mostly a sheaf around the outside of the root with a few hyphae penetrating into the root and a lot of hyphae penetrating into the environment. The roots in this circumstance are small, if the hyphae are growing out into the soil that take up nutrients they need to have complex root hair structures for this.

Answer 65

A

Biggest challenge that fungi cause is around the way they access their food. They have a rigid cell wall so they cant physically engulf things such as food, they have to get their food from absorption. This means that the nutrients have to be small and soluble so they can diffuse through the wall of the fungus to get to the membrane and be taken up. A fungus digests food outside its own body. So the fungus secretes its digestive enzymes into its surrounding environment and then bathes in this nutrient rich soup where the nutrients make there way back into the fungus. The enzymes are typically secreted are enzymes that depolymerase the macromolecules usually found in nature. So there will be protease to break down proteins etc. nutrient uptake is via absorption and there is a massive production of degrading enzymes that is secreted outside the fungus that cause many of the problems associated with fungus.

Answer 66

A

Fungi can eat pretty much anything that is of biological origin, so organic waste which can be recycled by a fungus they can access the carbon, sulphur locked up in these molecules. Because this digestion happens outside of the fungus other organisms competing in the natural environment might also access these molecules. When a fungus colonises a new niche. Secondary colonisers use starch and proteins which secrete enzymes into their environment accessing the easy to digest compounds. As those simple polymers start to run out- we have tertiary colonisers these are the fungi that use really complex things. Macromolecules like cellulose and lignins are harder to break down. It takes a much longer time but they are using polymers that primary and secondary colonisers couldnt really access.

Answer 67

A

all contain proteins so they provide a very valuable nutrient in the environment because nitrogen is quite limiting to growth. So these compounds are really beneficial if something can metabolise them. If they get wet that is what happens, the fungus can start to break down proteins in wool or leather or bone. Degrading these things and protease they make break up the protein chains.

Answer 68

A

lignin - radical chemistry to break down lignin as its harder to break.

Answer 69

A

each line has been occupied by fungus and where it meets a competitor fungus it marks down this dark lines as a way to mark their territory

Answer 70

A

Fungi can also rot away many man made products because these are originally from nature.they can also infect food and storage of food. We can control this sort of thing by drying etc cooling- fungi cant grow as fast.

Answer 71

A

Fungi have to prevent competition so they most commonly produce toxins that will act against different microbes or different organisms in their natural environment. They also produce these large fruiting structures in the case of mushrooms. As that is the reproductive part of the tissue then they will also protect that tissue from being eaten by other things.

Answer 72

A

There can be fungi that look just like the common mushroom. The yellow stainer that looks just like the field mushroom but when it gets bruised you get this yellow discolouration. If you cut the stem you often get this yellow discolouration in the stem. Yellow stainer produces a toxin in the fruiting body. The toxin is stable through cooking. Orellanin is highly poisonous, it will attack your liver or kidneys.
Sweating, stomach cramps
but not all people!

Answer 73

A

They also have other alarming effects apart from making you ill. The liberty cap for example this grows quite commonly in grassland which has been grazed by sheep. If a larger mammal eats the liberty cap the effects are alarming but not life threatening compared to smaller organisms.

Answer 74

A

has an outer membrane all the way around the fruiting body as well as the inner membrane that covers over the gills. This outer membrane gives this valva structure at the base of the fruiting body. These are deadly poisonous. The mushrooms contain two different toxins alpha-amanitin and phalloidin. Phalloidin can be destroyed by cooking but the alpha-amanitin is pretty serious. Toxins are normally ingested the toxin gets quickly taken up through the stomach. Your body will recognise that something is going wrong and it will trigger violent vomiting. The toxin causes degradation of RNA in the liver cells, by destroying RNA it halts protein synthesis. So you cant produce any proteins or destroy any toxins. Toxin is reabsorbed by the kidney so it doesnt get secreted out into the urine. There are antibodies that bind to the toxin.
 Produces -amanitin and phalloidin
 Toxins easily ingested
 Violent vomiting 6-24hrs post ingestion
 Causes nuclear RNA degradation in liver cells – halting protein synthesis
 Reabsorbed by the kidney and causes damage to convoluted tubules
 Causes liver failure 10-14 days post ingestion
 Mortality of 50-90%

Answer 75

A

various mycotoxins

Answer 76

A

Fungi from many different groups can cause disease. Powdery mildew- common disease of cereals and under a microscope the white patches consist of conidia. Chains of asexual spores that spread around and get blown around in the wind. This fungus can go through a sexual cycle. The small black patches are the fruiting bodies of the fungus. Becasue the fungus a sexual cycle that genetic reassortment means that if one strain is resistant to one fungicide and a different strain is resistant to another if they mate two different fungicide resistances can get into the same fungus. Therefore it is difficult to control a fungus that goes through sexual reproduction because they are able to continually reassort resistance mechanisms that they have.

Answer 77

A

Plant disease is often controlled by things like making sure the seed is cleaned before you plant it. They can sometimes be heat treated to try and eliminate pathogens from the seed. It is controlled by things like hygiene measures, crop rotation where you grow different crop in the field each year so you don’t build up soil residence in the pathogens as they are typically host specific. We breed plants so we can select resistant varieties which are resistant to the fungi that are out there. But the fungi to evolve over time to resist the fungicides. Can also use fungicides which are sprayed onto the crops to try and eradicate the disease.

Answer 78

A

Animals can also get fungal disease, common ringworm, the fungus that can cause this in dogs can also cause this on people. The fungal hyphae can get onto your skin. It is not a worm it is one fungal colony which starts and the middle and is slowly moving outwards and is getting bigger with massive irritation around the outside.. Its in the fungus interest to make you itch as you will loosen flakes of skin and those flakes will have hyphae that can transmit the infection.
Most fungi that can infect humans are very mild and the typical things you will get is allergies, skin diseases, localised infections.

Answer 79

A

yeast that can cause things thrush, can cause oral infection in babies. Pink eye.

Answer 80

A

the fungus here is living in dead material the outer layers of the skin and the outer layers of the toe nail. Because the fungus is secreting enzymes they diffuse through the tissue and you have an immune response in the proteins which causes the itching.

Answer 81

A

Most fungi dont have the ability to penetrate through the skin so infections tend not to happen very easily. But if the skin is damaged that has pushed a fungal spore under the skin then the fungus has got past your main barrier and into a nutrient rich environment. Providing that the fungus can cope with your body temperature, a few can, that fungus can then start growing and metabolising. You will have a white blood cell response and will engulf the fungal hyphae and will eventually eradicate it. More common to get in tropical areas.

Answer 82

A

biological control

Answer 83

A

Challenge with controlling fungal disease is that we are often dealing with a eukaryotic host, so it is harder to kill fungi than bacteria. Fungi are also very closely related to animals so having a drug that will kill the fungus and not you is also quite difficult.

Answer 84

A

 Many edible species:
 Mushrooms, truffles etc
 Cultivated mushrooms: Agaricus bisporus
 Also processed foods made using fungi, either as a food or to process other foods

Answer 85

A

 Soy beans are rather indigestible
 Ferment with Rhizopus oligosporus
 Degrades Trypsin Protease Inhibitor-making the proteins more digestible for us
 Degrades polysaccharides, reducing flatulence!
 Alters fatty acid
and lipid profile
 Improves flavour

Answer 86

A

 Soy beans soaked and inoculated with Aspergillus sojae, A. awemori and A. oryzae.
 Indigestible proteins degraded to release free amino acids, starches to sugars (more flavour)
 Add salt, yeast, and lactic acid bacteria
 Ferment for several years

Answer 87

A

 Yeast cannot degrade starch, so how do you get from starch to sugar to produce alcohol?
 Rice is soaked then inoculated with Aspergillus oryzae or Aspergillus awemori
 These fungi secrete amylase enzymes to degrade the starch
 After 2-3 days, there is sufficient enzyme secreted to move on to yeast-based fermentation, flood the culture inhibiting filamentous fungi growth but enzymes still active and add yeast.

Answer 88

A

 Grow a microbe in liquid media
 Needs a suitable container
 What nutrient source
 Aeration?
 Contamination?
 Alcohol production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae – anaerobic fermentation of glucose to give ethanol
 Wines and Ciders from natural sugars in the ripe fruit.
 Yeast cannot use starch so needs MALTING/MASHING for cereals – or another “pre-fermentation”

Answer 89

A

 Carbon source: corn steep liquor

Nitrogen source: ammonium

Answer 90

A

costs low but quality control is important

Answer 91

A

 Starter culture-lab grown
 Plate → flask → small fermenter
 Inoculate main fermenter and grow
 Commence harvest when at desired density
 Continuous culture for ~16 weeks–Add fresh media and harvest fungus at a dilution rate of 1 fermenter volume per 5-6 hours

Answer 92

A

	Fungally produced toxins
	Produced on cereals and oil-rich seeds
	Non-transmissible, seasonal
	Liver damage
	Carcinogenic

Answer 93

A

	Aspergillus flavus, 
A. parasiticus etc
	Toxins Fluoresce under UV light
	Occurs on cereals and peanuts
	Present in milk and meat from animals fed on contaminated feeds
	Highly Carcinogenic

Answer 94

A

 Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium verrucosum
 Kidney and liver damage
T2 toxin:
 Fusarium sporotrichoides
 Poisoned thousands in WW2 (1942/43) in Russia – unharvested crops

Answer 95

A

 Citric acid –
Aspergillus niger 400,000 T pa
 Vitamins and amino acid supplements: from various fungi e.g., riboflavin from Ashbya sp.
Antibiotics:
 Penicillin (Flemming 1928)
Penicillium notatum, grown in shallow trays
 Penicillium chrysogenum – submerged culture, NRRL 1951 from a mouldy canteloupe melon
 Initially 2U/ml, now 70,000U/ml

Answer 96

A

 Cephalosporins: -lactam antibiotics from Cephalosporium acremonium
 Cyclosporin: Immunosuppressant from Tolypocladium inflatum – an 11 aminoacid ring made from a gene of 48.5kb
 Griseofulvin: antifungal from Penicillium griseofulvum – topical application only
 Echinocandin: antifungal from Aspergillus sp., inhibitor of  1-3 glucan synthesis
 “Statins”: anticholesterol drugs

Answer 97

A

 Amylases, glucanases, invertases– to get sugars from starches
 Pectinases for clearing fruit juices
 Proteases for washing powders
 Rennets for vegetarian cheese
 Hydrophobins for detergent additives
 Medical proteins: insulin, factor VIII etc.

Answer 98

A

	Most fungi are haploid – a single copy of each chromosome
	Mutations show their phenotype
	Excellent genetic models
	Crosses
	Transformation, 
Knockouts etc

 Yeast: First eukaryote sequence (1996)
 Full set of gene knockouts commercially available

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Week 11 Flashcards

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