Week 10: identity and gender development

Question 1

When does identity development begin?

Answer 1

In infancy

Question 2

When does identity development become a focus?

Answer 2

In adolescence

Question 3

What did Erikson propose about trust in infancy?

Answer 3

By the second year of life, securely attached infants develop a sense of trust and confidence, becoming increasingly interested in new people, places and experiences
Coincides with new abilities to explore, think and communicate

More trust = the more safe you feel

Question 4

Autonomy in toddlerhood?

Answer 4

Child’s capacity to be independent and self-directed

Is healthy when toddlers encounter a reasonable balance between freedom to explore and control

Question 5

Sense of self in toddlerhood?

Answer 5

Infants develop a sense of self but before this, they don’t perceive themselves as any different from anyone else

Occurs in stages

1. Self-recognition and awareness
2. Self-description and evaluation
3. Knowledge of standards and emotional response to wrongdoing

Question 6

Self-identity in middle childhood?

Answer 6

They develop a deeper understanding of the kind of person they are and begin to understand the extent of their popularity, academic competence, confidence etc

Question 7

By what age are children able to better integrate different traits and ideas about themselves?

Answer 7

10-12 years

Question 8

What is achievement motivation and what are the 2 forms?

Answer 8

Showing initiative and persistence in attaining goals and increasing competence via

• Learning orientation: motivation that comes from within the learner
• Performance orientation: motivation that comes from significant others

Question 9

What is almost forced onto adolescents?

Answer 9

The process of identity formation through increased cognitive capacity and societal pressure

Question 10

Adolescence is characterized by risk-taking, what are the two kinds?

Answer 10

Risk taking can also be considered to be exploratory behaviours

Can be:

• Positive: enhance functioning, development, and identity without leading to compromising situations
• Negative: result in detrimental consequences to health, safety and relationship

Question 11

Adolescence who are already sure of their identity are not as likely to…

Answer 11

Engage in negative risk-taking behaviours

Question 12

Eriksons crisis of adolescence is….

Answer 12

Identity vs role onfusion

Involves the development of a coherent sense of self through exploration and belief system

Question 13

What did Marcia propose?

Answer 13

Extended Erikson’s model arguing that the adolescent stage consists neither of identity resolution nor confusion but the degree to which one has explored and committed to an identity

Question 14

What were the 2 main parts of Marcia’s adolescent identity development view?

Answer 14

Crisis: a time of upheaval when one’s values and choices are being explored and reevaluated

Commitment: when the crisis is being resolved, and one decides to invest in a course of action, role or value

Question 15

What are Marcia’s actual stages of identity development?

Answer 15

1. Identity diffusion
2. Identity foreclosure
3. Identity moratorium
4. Identity achievement

Question 16

Explain the identity diffusion stage of Marcia’s model

Answer 16

Neither crisis or commitment

Typical of early adolescents who have not yet experienced crisis nor made a commitment

Most unsophisticated identity status

If continue - making underlying identity insecurities

Question 17

Explain the identity foreclosure stage of Marcia’s model

Answer 17

Commitment only

Committed to an identity but without exploration

Become what others want them to become without deciding for themselves
Often commit early to job and relationship and unlikely to change

A means to reduce anxiety

Question 18

Explain the identity moratorium stage of Marcia’s model

Answer 18

Crisis/exploration only

Confused, unstable, disorientated, rebellious, and uncooperative, anxious

Generally have permissive parents

Question 19

Explain the identity achievement stage of Marcia’s model

Answer 19

Crisis/exploration + committment

Can take many years

Evaluate their choices and come to their own decision

Self-acceptance, stable self-definition and commitment to a course of action

Question 20

Which of Marcias stages is built from greater parental support and encouragement?

Answer 20

Associated with moratorium status but they may also be susceptible to foreclosure

Question 21

In relation to Marcia’s stages, supportive peers can…

Answer 21

Inhibit foreclosure status (stop you conforming to parents views)

Question 22

Teachers can…

Answer 22

Encourage students to be independent and encourage them to explore more things

Question 23

Gender differences in identity development?

Answer 23

Males tend to form a form identity before entering intimate relationships
Female identity is more tied up with relationships than is male identity

Question 24

What does Erikson say about identity in early adulthood?

Answer 24

The tasks of early adulthood are to develop the ability tp establish close committed relationships and tolerate the threat of fusion and loss of individual identity that comes with intense intimacy

Question 25

What does Erikson say about identity in middle adulthood?

Answer 25

The tasks are to expand ego interest and to establish and nurture the next generation

Can be a time of significant change and often results in a reassessment of priorities

Question 26

What does Erikson say about identity in late adulthood?

Answer 26

The task is to find integrity in the face of loss

Activity theory: those who maintain activity levels age more successfully
Disengagement theory: reduced social involvement is a natural and mutual process between older adults and society

Question 27

What is sex?

Answer 27

Physiological fact
Possession of XX or XY chromosomes
Give rise to primary and secondary sex characteristics

Question 28

What is gender?

Answer 28

A socio-psychological construct
One’s sense of being female, male or something else
A fundamental aspect of one’s social identity

Can set the parameters of social expectations

Question 29

What are gender roles and their development?

Answer 29

Defined by the range of behaviours expected by a particular group

Learning to behave in ways that are consistent with group norms for males and females

Question 30

Young children can be..

Answer 30

actually quite sexist

Question 31

Gender stereotyping may…

Answer 31

Limit activities or opportunities for learning, males and females are treated differently right from birth

Question 32

Male-female differences in social behaviours are established early and do increase with age. What do we see by the age of 2?

Answer 32

Girls: greater compliance and less independence than boys
Boys: actively explore their environment to a greater extent than girls

Question 33

Overall, have there been consistent findings between males and females?

Answer 33

No. There are no strong and consistent personality differences between males and females

Question 34

Sociobiological view of gender development?

Answer 34

Modern gender roles have their roots in prehistoric male-female role differences

Evolved over millions of years in response to environmental demands and natural selection

These roles are still played out today despite modern technology that make these roles largely interchangeable

Question 35

Hormonal differences in gender development?

Answer 35

Male and female hormones may influence gender-typed behaviour

Question 36

What evidence is there towards the hormonal view of gender development?

Answer 36

Mothers that have been given androgens (male hormones) during pregnancy, their daughters exhibit a greater preference for male companions and have more masculine play patterns and toy interests
And this is reversed if boys are exposed to higher levels of female hormones in utero

Boys with underdeveloped genitals or accidental castration, if bought up as a girl they express gender identity dissatisfaction at puberty

Question 37

Social learning models of gender development?

Answer 37

Considers the social environment in the acquisition of gender roles and gender-typed behaviour

Seen to be learned through reinforcement of gender-appropriate behaviors via modelling (provided by adults, peers or wider societal models and media)and self-regulation

Question 38

However, overall the influence of reinforcement by adults and the media is…

Answer 38

Quite modest

Question 39

The social learning model does not account for

Answer 39

The fact that gender role rigidity varies across developmental stages (children are more and less likely to care about what boys/girls can or cannot do at different stages)

Doesn’t consider different developmental stages nor the role that maturation may play

Cognitive theories may address some of its weaknesses

Question 40

Cognitive model of gender development?

Answer 40

Children as active processors/seekers of gender-based info

Construct their own roles by monitoring and selecting the environment

Largely self-socialise into their gender roles and seek information relevant to it and practise relevant behaviours

Question 41

What is Kohlberg’s 3 stage cognitive development model of gender identity acquisition?

Answer 41

1. Gender labelling: 2.5-3.5 years children learn to assign the labels of girl and boy or man and woman on the basis of appearance
2. Gender stability: 3.5-4.5 years children become aware of the permanency of gender, but may be fooled by appearances
3. Gender constancy: 4.5-7 years children see gender as consistent across time and context, no longer fooled by appearances

Question 42

What is the gender schematic processing theory?

Answer 42

As soon as children have acquired their own gender identity, they begin to build a gender-based schema

Children are concerned about the gender appropriateness of objects and play activities

They filter information and opportunities according to an internalized cognitive framework (e.g. ignore things like their dad doing the dishes because it doesn’t fit their schema. if they see it enough, they will start to incorporate it in) - this may be an explanation towards relatively weak effects of modelling because they ignore some things

Question 43

What are the weaknesses of cognitive models of gender identity acquisition?

Answer 43

Minimize the influence of the social environment

No clear links between gender-based cognitions and gender-types behavior

Question 44

Flexible gender roles?

Answer 44

Allow males and females to behave in ways that freely integrate traditional gender-type behaviours

Question 45

Gender-role transcendence?

Answer 45

Individuals are viewed as individuals, not masculine, feminine or androgynous