Week 1 sessions 1-3 revision

Question 1

Define anatomy and physiology

Answer 1

anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms and physiology is the study of the function of living organisms

Question 2

List the different levels of structural organisation in

the body

Answer 2

-chemical level
-cellular level
-tissue level
-organ level
–organism level

Question 3

List the 11 systems of the human body, representative organs present in each, and their general functions

Answer 3

-immune/lymphatic system >organs>

-respiratory system organs>

-nervous system organs> brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

-integumentary system organs>skin,hair and nails

-digestive system organs>

-cardiovascular system organs>. heart, blood vessels and blood

-endocrine system organs>

-renal system organs>

-muscular system organs>

-skeletal system organs> cartilage, bones and joints

-reproductive system organs>

Question 4

Define the life processes of humans

Answer 4

Metabolism: all the chemical reactions that occur in the body
• Production of energy
• Making body structures

Excretion: Elimination of waste from metabolic reactions

Responsiveness: body’s ability to detect and respond to changes in its internal or external environment: some typical responses include muscle contraction, electrical signals, hormone or glandular secretion

Movement: includes locomotion of the whole body and movement of substances

Digestion: Break-down and delivery of nutrients

Reproduction: formation of new cells for growth, repair or
replacement or to the production of a new individual

Growth: increase in size of a body part or of the organism

Question 5

Define homeostasis and describe importance of homeostasis

Answer 5

Definition: Homeostasis refers to the ability of an organism or system to maintain a relatively stable internal environment, despite changes in the external environment.

Importance: Homeostasis is important for the survival and proper functioning of living organisms. It allows the body to maintain a stable internal environment, which is necessary for optimal cellular function, metabolism, and other life processes. Without homeostasis, the body would be unable to regulate important variables such as body temperature, blood pH, and nutrient levels, which could lead to various health problems and ultimately death. The body maintains homeostasis through various mechanisms such as negative feedback loops, hormonal regulation, and the nervous system.

Question 6

Define and describe positive and negative feedback mechanisms and give examples of each

Answer 6

Negative feedback mechanism:

Definition: A type of regulatory system that opposes changes in the internal environment, returning the system to a state of balance or homeostasis.

Example: When body temperature rises, the body activates sweat glands to release sweat, which cools the skin and lowers body temperature. This decreases the stimulus for sweating and brings the body temperature back to normal.

Positive feedback mechanism:

Definition: A type of regulatory system that amplifies or enhances a process, driving it further away from homeostasis until a desired outcome is achieved.

Example: During childbirth, the pressure of the baby’s head on the cervix triggers the release of oxytocin, which causes the uterine muscles to contract. As the contractions become stronger and more frequent, more oxytocin is released, further increasing the contractions until the baby is born.

Question 7

Definition of cell and describe function

Answer 7

Definition: A cell is the basic unit of life and the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism.

Function: Cells are responsible for maintaining their own structure, carrying out metabolic processes, and reproducing. They are the building blocks of all living things and are essential for the proper functioning and growth of organisms.

Question 8

Describe how cells are specialized according to function

Answer 8

Cells become specialized through a process called differentiation, which is controlled by genetic and environmental factors. Differentiation allows cells to take on specific functions within the organism. During development, cells undergo differentiation to become specialized cells such as muscle cells, nerve cells, and blood cells.

Question 9

Describe the anatomical position

Answer 9

The anatomical position is the standard reference position used in anatomy and medicine. It is a standing position with the body facing forward, feet parallel and flat on the floor, arms at the sides, and palms facing forward. In this position, the body is erect with the head level and eyes looking forward. The anatomical position is used as a point of reference for describing the location and relationships of different body parts.

Question 10

Define the directional terms and the anatomical planes and sections used to locate parts of the human body

Answer 10

Sure, here’s a flashcard-friendly definition:

Directional terms and anatomical planes and sections are used to locate and describe parts of the human body.

Directional terms describe the position of one structure relative to another. Examples include:

Superior: Refers to a structure being above another structure.

Inferior: Refers to a structure being below another structure.

Anterior: Refers to a structure being in front of another structure.

Posterior: Refers to a structure being behind another structure.

Medial: Refers to a structure being closer to the midline of the body.

Lateral: Refers to a structure being farther from the midline of the body.

Anatomical planes and sections are imaginary lines used to divide the body into different parts for reference. Examples include:

Sagittal plane: Divides the body into left and right halves.

Frontal plane: Divides the body into front and back halves.

Transverse plane: Divides the body into top and bottom halves.

These directional terms and anatomical planes and sections are used in medical and anatomical terminology to describe the position and relationship of different body parts.

Question 11

To be familiar with definitions of microbe categories

Answer 11

Bacteria: Single-celled microorganisms that are found in a wide range of environments. They can be beneficial, such as those that live in the human gut and help with digestion, or harmful, such as those that cause infections.

Viruses: Tiny infectious agents that can only replicate inside host cells. They can cause a wide range of diseases, from the common cold to more severe illnesses like HIV and COVID-19.

Fungi: Eukaryotic microorganisms that can be either single-celled or multicellular. They are found in many different environments and can be beneficial, such as those used in the production of food and medicine, or harmful, such as those that cause infections.

Protozoa: Single-celled eukaryotic microorganisms that are found in a variety of aquatic and terrestrial environments. Some species are harmless, while others can cause diseases like malaria and dysentery.

Algae: Photosynthetic eukaryotic microorganisms that are found in aquatic environments. They are important for the production of oxygen and serve as the base of the food chain in many aquatic ecosystems.

In summary, bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae are all categories of microorganisms that can have both beneficial and harmful effects on human health and the environment.

Question 12

Identify different types of microbes. Identify least to most resistant types of microbes

Answer 12

Types of microbes arranged from least to most resistant:

Enveloped viruses
Gram-positive bacteria
Non-enveloped viruses
Gram-negative bacteria
Fungi
Spore-forming bacteria

Question 13

To understand the principle of how infection is spread and transmitted

Answer 13

Principle of how infection is spread and transmitted - Chain of infection:

Infectious agent: The microorganism that causes the infection, such as a virus, bacteria, or fungus.

Reservoir: The environment in which the infectious agent lives and multiplies.

Portal of exit: The way the infectious agent leaves the reservoir, such as through respiratory secretions, blood, or feces.

Mode of transmission: The way the infectious agent is transferred to another host, such as through direct contact, droplets, or contaminated objects.

Portal of entry: The way the infectious agent enters the new host, such as through the nose, mouth, or skin.

Susceptible host: A person who is not immune to the infectious agent and can become infected.

Question 14

Know what nosocomial infections are and why they occur in hospital environment

Answer 14

What are nosocomial infections and why do they occur in hospital environments?

Nosocomial infections are infections that are acquired in a hospital or healthcare facility.
They can be caused by various microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
They occur in patients, visitors, or healthcare workers.
Reasons for their occurrence include weakened immune systems, invasive procedures, prolonged hospital stays, contaminated medical equipment or surfaces, and inadequate hand hygiene practices.
Preventative measures such as infection control protocols, hand hygiene, proper disinfection and sterilization, and antibiotic stewardship can help reduce the incidence of nosocomial infections.

Question 15

Be aware of the steps in the chain of infection and thus where action can be taken to control microbes

Answer 15

infectious agent: The microorganism that causes the infection.
Action: Identify the microbe and use appropriate antimicrobial measures to control its growth.

Reservoir: The environment in which the infectious agent lives and multiplies.
Action: Implement measures to reduce or eliminate the reservoir, such as proper sanitation and disinfection.

Portal of exit: The way the infectious agent leaves the reservoir.
Action: Implement measures to prevent or minimize the escape of the infectious agent, such as proper disposal of waste and use of barriers (e.g., masks, gloves).

Mode of transmission: The way the infectious agent is transferred to another host.
Action: Implement measures to interrupt transmission, such as isolation precautions, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), and proper hand hygiene.

Portal of entry: The way the infectious agent enters the new host.
Action: Implement measures to prevent or minimize the entry of the infectious agent, such as use of barriers (e.g., masks, gloves) and proper hand hygiene.

Susceptible host: A person who is not immune to the infectious agent and can become infected.
Action: Implement measures to reduce the susceptibility of the host, such as vaccination, use of antibiotics or antivirals, and maintenance of a healthy immune system.

Question 16

To understand the portals of entry and exit of microorganisms into the body

Answer 16

Portals of Entry: The way microorganisms enter the body.
Respiratory Tract: Microorganisms can enter through the nose, mouth, and lungs, causing respiratory infections.

Gastrointestinal Tract: Microorganisms can enter through the mouth and anus, causing foodborne and waterborne infections.

Genitourinary Tract: Microorganisms can enter through the urethra and vagina, causing urinary tract infections and sexually transmitted infections.

Skin and Mucous Membranes: Microorganisms can enter through cuts, wounds, and openings in the skin, as well as through the eyes, nose, and mouth.

Portals of Exit: The way microorganisms leave the body.
Respiratory Tract: Microorganisms can exit through the nose, mouth, and lungs, spreading respiratory infections.

Gastrointestinal Tract: Microorganisms can exit through the mouth and anus, spreading infections through fecal matter.

Genitourinary Tract: Microorganisms can exit through the urethra and vagina, spreading infections through bodily fluids.

Skin and Mucous Membranes: Microorganisms can exit through wounds, as well as through bodily fluids.

Question 17

Discuss how we control spread of infection- Know the meaning of common terms such as infection, asepsis and sterilisation

Answer 17

ontrolling the Spread of Infection:

Infection: A condition in which microorganisms invade the body and cause harm or disease.

Asepsis: The practice of preventing the entry of microorganisms into sterile tissues or objects.

Sterilization: The process of killing or removing all microorganisms from a surface or object.

Steps to Control the Spread of Infection:

Hand Hygiene: Regularly washing hands or using hand sanitizers helps to prevent the spread of microorganisms.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Wearing gloves, masks, gowns, and other protective equipment helps to prevent exposure to microorganisms.

Environmental Cleaning: Regular cleaning and disinfecting of surfaces and objects helps to remove microorganisms and prevent their spread.

Sterilization: Using methods such as heat, radiation, or chemicals to kill or remove all microorganisms from surfaces and objects.

Isolation Precautions: Separating patients with contagious infections from others helps to prevent the spread of microorganisms.

Vaccination: Getting vaccinated against infectious diseases can help to prevent the spread of those diseases.

By understanding common terms such as infection, asepsis, and sterilization, and implementing the steps to control the spread of infection, we can help to prevent the spread of harmful microorganisms and protect ourselves and others from infectious diseases.

Question 18

Be able to indicate methods for sterilising microbes and principle (action) of the main methods; focus on physical, chemical methods and antibiotics.

Answer 18

Methods for Sterilizing Microbes:

Physical Methods: These methods involve applying heat, radiation, or filtration to kill or remove all microorganisms from surfaces or objects.
Heat Sterilization: Uses dry or moist heat to kill microorganisms. Common methods include autoclaving, incineration, and dry heat sterilization.

Radiation Sterilization: Uses ionizing radiation such as gamma rays or electron beams to kill microorganisms.

Filtration: Uses filters to physically remove microorganisms from liquids or gases.

Chemical Methods: These methods involve using chemicals such as disinfectants or gases to kill or remove microorganisms.
Disinfection: Uses chemicals such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, or alcohol to kill microorganisms on surfaces or objects.

Sterilization with Gases: Uses gases such as ethylene oxide to kill microorganisms on surfaces or objects.

Antibiotics: Antibiotics are medications that kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms, particularly bacteria. They are commonly used to treat infectious diseases, but are not typically used for sterilization.
Principles of Sterilization Methods:

Physical methods kill or remove microorganisms by applying heat, radiation, or filtration.

Chemical methods kill or remove microorganisms by using chemicals or gases.

Antibiotics kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.

By using a combination of these methods, healthcare facilities and laboratories can effectively sterilize equipment, surfaces, and materials to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

Question 19

Definition of cell and describe function

Answer 19

definition: a cell is a structural and functional unit of life

function: the function of the cell is determined by the shape and the specific subcellular structures

Question 20

Describe how cells are specialized according to function

Answer 20

cells are specialised through differentiation and have different shapes and sizes depending on what activity the body needs them to carry out to do.

Question 21

Describe the basic structure and function of the plasma membrane

Answer 21

the plasma membrane(also known as the fluid Mosiac model) consists of a bilayer of phospholipids that are made of hydrophobic heads (water-hating heads )and hydrophilic tails (water-loving). They are a barrier to help separate intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid. in addition, the plasma membrane is also semi-permeable meaning it selectively chooses what comes in and out. the membrane also keeps cells together through cell junctions.

Question 22

Describe the different methods of transport across the cell plasma membranes

Answer 22

two categories: active (requires energy) and passive (no energy required)

passive transport:
-simple diffusion: this is when a cell can pass through the plasma membrane without having to go through differentiation. also uses no energy and is polar and small

-Facilitated diffusion is when a cell moves through the plasma membrane via a membrane protein. it is for larger ions and polar molecules and does not use energy

active transport:

osmosis: is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to a low concentration.

vesicular transport: the movement of a particle through a vesicle into the plasma membrane. requires energy

Question 23

Define and describe diffusion and osmosis

Answer 23

diffusion refers to the movement of molecules from a area of high concentration to low concentration and osmosis refers to the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane (active transport)

Question 24

Describe what would happen to a cell in a hypertonic, isotonic and
hypotonic solution

Answer 24

isotonic solution a cell would not need water gain or loss as it can go in or out as the solute is the same

hypertonic solution a cell would want to lose water as there is to much solute in hypertonic solution

hypotonic the cell would want to gain water as there is a low concentration of solute

Question 25

Describe the function of the nucleus.

Answer 25

a nucleus is a library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins.
the nucleus responds to signals that dictate what proteins and the number of proteins need to be made

Question 26

Describe translation and transcription.

Answer 26

during translation within the nucleus, DNA is coded and transferred to an mRNA(messenger) that mRNA travels through a nuclear pore from the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm where it then binds to a ribosome

in translation ribosomes move along the mRNA translating the genetic message into proteins with specific amino acid sequences

Question 27

list the major organelles within cells and briefly describe their function

Answer 27

Golgi apparatus processes , modify packs, and stores proteins

mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell and produce ATP

ribosomes attach to mRNA to collect genetic blueprint off them to create a protein with certain amino acid sequence

cytoplasm: maintain, process, protect, and acts as a host for metabolism processes.

plasma membrane only selectively lets certain substances in and out

the nucleus is the genetic blueprint that knows how much and how many protein are needed

Question 28

Name four basic types of tissue that make up the human body and state the characteristics of each

Answer 28

1. epithelial tissue
2. connective tissue
3. muscular tissue
4. nervous tissue

Question 29

apesis

Answer 29

refers to the practice of maintaining a sterile environment to prevent the spread of infection. This involves taking measures to reduce or eliminate microorganisms that may cause infection, such as cleaning and disinfecting surfaces, using sterile equipment and instruments, and wearing protective clothing like gloves and masks.

Question 30

Sterilization

Answer 30

refers to the process of killing or removing all forms of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores. Sterilization can be achieved through physical or chemical means, such as heat, radiation, or chemical disinfection.

Question 31

To control the spread of infection,

Answer 31

Hand hygiene: Washing hands with soap and water or using alcohol-based hand sanitizers is a crucial step in preventing the spread of infection.

Personal protective equipment (PPE): Wearing appropriate PPE, such as gloves, masks, gowns, and eye protection, can help to reduce the risk of infection transmission.

Environmental cleaning: Regular cleaning and disinfecting of surfaces and equipment can help to reduce the number of microorganisms present in the environment.

Isolation: Isolating infected individuals can help to prevent the spread of infection to others.

Vaccination: Vaccines can help to prevent the spread of infectious diseases by building immunity in individuals.

Education and awareness: Promoting education and awareness about infection control measures and proper hygiene practices can help to prevent the spread of infection in the community.