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HAP > WEEK 1 (PART 1) > Flashcards

WEEK 1 (PART 1) Flashcards

1
Q

What are cells?

A

Complex machines that continuously produce energy and waste

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2
Q

What is the energy produced by cells used for?

A

Cell survival, cell repair, and formation of new cells through cell division

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3
Q

What happens if there is an interruption to the complex processes in a cell?

A

Premature cell death, failure to give rise to new cells, or cellular disease

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4
Q

What are the two major parts of a typical eukaryotic cell?

A

Nucleus and cytoplasm

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5
Q

What separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm?

A

Nuclear membrane or envelope

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6
Q

What separates the cytoplasm from the surrounding environment?

A

Plasma membrane

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7
Q

What is the living content surrounded by the plasma membrane called?

A

Protoplasm

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8
Q

What are the five basic substances that compose protoplasm?

A

Water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates

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9
Q

What percentage of a cell is water?

A

70-85%

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10
Q

What is the function of electrolytes in cells?

A

Provide inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions (e.g., electro-chemical impulses in nerves and muscle fibers)

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11
Q

What is the function of proteins in cells?

A

Structural (e.g., cell cytoskeleton) or functional (e.g., enzymes that catalyze intracellular chemical reactions)

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12
Q

What is an example of a functional protein?

A

Enzymes involved in glucose utilization

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13
Q

What is the function of lipids in cells?

A

Form cell membranes and intracellular barriers

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14
Q

What is the function of carbohydrates in cells?

A

Play a major role in cell nutrition

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15
Q

What are organelles and what are some important ones?

A

Organelles are structures within the cytoplasm that perform specific functions. Important organelles include the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and lysosomes.

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16
Q

What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?

A

A network of membrane-enclosed tubes called cisternae

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17
Q

What is the main function of the ER?

A

Synthesis and transport of proteins and lipids for most cell organelles

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18
Q

What other important functions does the ER have?

A

Protein folding and sensing cell stress

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19
Q

How is the ER connected to the nucleus?

A

The ER membrane is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane

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20
Q

What factors can influence the function of the ER?

A

Oxygen levels, glucose levels, temperature, acidity, calcium levels, energy levels

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21
Q

What can happen when the ER malfunctions (ER stress)?

A

Disrupted protein folding in the ER lumen

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22
Q

How does the cell respond to ER stress?

A

Initiates the unfolded protein response (UPR) to adapt and survive or trigger cell death (apoptosis)

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23
Q

How is ER stress linked to diseases?

A

Obesity-induced diabetes, atherosclerosis, and some cancers

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24
Q

What is a potential therapeutic approach based on ER stress?

A

Drugs that reduce cellular stress to protect β cells in type 2 diabetes

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25
Q

Are there any links between ER dysfunction and neurological disorders?

A

Yes, ER dysfunction has been linked to Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, multiple sclerosis, and stroke

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26
Q

Can repairing ER dysfunction be a potential treatment for neurodegenerative diseases?

A

Research suggests it may be a way to treat these conditions

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27
Q

What are the two main types of ER?

A

Rough ER (with ribosomes for protein synthesis) and smooth ER (for lipid and carbohydrate metabolism)

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28
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)?

A

An organelle with stacked membranes (cisternae)

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29
Q

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

A

Processes and packages proteins for transport to specific locations in the cell

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30
Q

What is an example of a disease linked to Golgi apparatus dysfunction?

A

Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy (due to abnormal protein processing)

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31
Q

What is the main function of mitochondria?

A

Cellular respiration and energy production (ATP)

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32
Q

What does a mitochondrion look like?

A

Double membrane-bound organelle with a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane (cristae)

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33
Q

Where does most of the cell’s energy come from?

A

Oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrial matrix

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34
Q

What other processes occur in the mitochondria?

A

Carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid utilization; urea and heme synthesis

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35
Q

Do mitochondria have their own DNA?

A

Yes, they have DNA that codes for some of their enzymes

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36
Q

What other cellular functions are mitochondria involved in?

A

Calcium control and cell death regulation

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37
Q

What are reactive oxygen species (ROS)?

A

Byproducts of oxidative phosphorylation, acting as signaling molecules at low levels but causing damage at high levels

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38
Q

What factors can increase ROS levels?

A

Hypoxia, injury, and mitochondrial aging

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39
Q

What else do mitochondria do besides produce ATP?

A

Regulate cell survival and death (necrosis and apoptosis)

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40
Q

Where do lysosomes originate from?

A

Golgi complex

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41
Q

What do lysosomes contain?

A

Digestive enzymes (hydrolases) that break down various molecules

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42
Q

What is the function of lysosomes?

A

Cellular digestion (breaking down proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates)

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43
Q

What protects the cell from the digestive enzymes in lysosomes?

A

The lysosomal membrane

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44
Q

What happens if the lysosomal membrane ruptures?

A

Digestive enzymes leak into the cytoplasm and break down cellular components, leading to cell death

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45
Q

What are lysosomal storage diseases?

A

Conditions where lysosomes malfunction and accumulate undigested material

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46
Q

What is an example of a lysosomal storage disease?

A

Pompe disease (accumulation of glycogen)

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47
Q

How can lysosomes be damaged?

A

Through various treatments, cellular injury, pancreatitis, or gout

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48
Q

What happens when lysosomes are damaged in gout?

A

Undigested uric acid accumulates, damaging the lysosomal membrane and causing cell death and tissue injury (gout pain)

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49
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

Membrane-bound organelles containing oxidative enzymes

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50
Q

What is the main function of peroxisomes?

A

Detoxification by neutralizing poisons and free radicals

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51
Q

How do peroxisomes neutralize poisons?

A

By using enzymes to convert them into harmless byproducts, including hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

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52
Q

What enzyme breaks down hydrogen peroxide in peroxisomes?

A

Catalase

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53
Q

Analogy for peroxisome function?

A

Miniature sewage treatment plant for the cell

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54
Q

What other functions do peroxisomes have?

A

Break down fatty acids and amino acids, metabolize lipids, and synthesize phospholipids for nerve cell myelination

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55
Q

Why are peroxisomes abundant in liver cells?

A

Liver is the primary organ for detoxifying blood

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56
Q

What are free radicals and why are they important?

A

They are harmful molecules that can damage cells, and peroxisomes help neutralize them

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57
Q

Are there any diseases associated with peroxisome dysfunction?

A

Yes, rare genetic diseases like Zellweger Syndrome and neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy can occur

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58
Q

How can abnormal metabolism lead to disease?

A

Disrupts normal cell function and can cause severe tissue dysfunction

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59
Q

Why is glucose used in intravenous therapy?

A

Because all bodily functions require energy, and glucose is a readily available energy source

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60
Q

Why can’t an obese ICU patient necessarily be put on a diet?

A

The body still needs energy for basic functions even at rest

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61
Q

What is the basal metabolic rate?

A

The rate of energy expenditure at rest

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62
Q

How is cellular metabolism controlled?

A

Primarily by enzymes that speed up chemical reactions

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63
Q

What are the two main pathways in cellular metabolism?

A

Catabolism (breaking down molecules) and anabolism (building new molecules)

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64
Q

What is a key energy source for cells?

A

Glucose

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65
Q

How is energy extracted from glucose?

A

Through a complex series of reactions involving breakdown and oxidation (controlled burning) of glucose molecules

66
Q

What process uses glucose for energy production?

A

Cellular respiration

67
Q

How do cells use the energy from glucose?

A

ATP, an energy-transferring molecule produced from glucose breakdown, powers cellular functions

68
Q

What is oxidation?

A

The process of a molecule gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen or electrons

69
Q

What is the opposite process of oxidation?

A

Reduction

70
Q

What is ATP and how is it produced?

A

ATP is an energy-transferring molecule produced through a metabolic pathway involving breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.

71
Q

What is the main dietary source of glucose for cells?

A

Glucose from carbohydrates, absorbed from the gastrointestinal system.

72
Q

How is glucose regulated in the liver?

A

Glucokinase (positively regulated by insulin, negatively regulated by starvation and diabetes) phosphorylates glucose for storage or use.

73
Q

Where is excess glucose stored in the body?

A

Excess glucose is stored as glycogen mainly in the liver and skeletal muscle.

74
Q

What are the two main pathways for glucose breakdown?

A

Glycolysis (aerobic) and anaerobic glycolysis (anaerobic).

75
Q

What are the products of glycolysis?

A

Pyruvate and ATP (not enough to sustain cells).

76
Q

What happens to pyruvate under aerobic conditions?

A

Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA and then citric acid in the citric acid cycle for most ATP production.

77
Q

Where does most ATP production occur?

A

The majority of ATP is made from oxidations in the citric acid cycle in connection with the electron transport chain in the mitochondria.

78
Q

What are byproducts of oxidative phosphorylation?

A

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) like superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, which can cause cellular damage.

79
Q

What is the product of anaerobic glycolysis and what happens to it?

A

Lactate is produced and released into the bloodstream, taken up by the liver and converted back to glucose.

80
Q

Which tissues are most susceptible to hypoglycemia due to limited anaerobic ATP production?

A

Tissues with low oxygen supply, such as rapidly contracting muscles during intense exercise.

81
Q

How are proteins built?

A

From amino acids linked by peptide bonds

82
Q

How are proteins absorbed in infants vs adults?

A

Infants absorb whole proteins, adults absorb individual amino acids

83
Q

What happens to the body’s own proteins?

A

They are constantly recycled and resynthesized

84
Q

What are the major types of proteins in blood plasma?

A

Albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen

85
Q

What is the function of albumin?

A

Maintains colloid osmotic pressure in blood plasma

86
Q

What are the functions of globulins?

A

Enzymatic functions and cell immunity

87
Q

What is the function of fibrinogen?

A

Forms blood clots to stop bleeding and aid wound healing

88
Q

What happens to excess amino acids?

A

Broken down in the liver for energy or storage (fat/glycogen)

89
Q

What is the first step in amino acid breakdown?

A

Deamination (removal of amino groups) in the liver

90
Q

What is a toxic byproduct of deamination and what happens to it?

A

Ammonia; converted to urea in the liver to prevent brain damage

91
Q

What are ketoacids and how are they used?

A

Products of deamination; oxidized for energy in the citric acid cycle

92
Q

How can amino acids be converted into glucose or fatty acids?

A

Through gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis, respectively

93
Q

What happens during severe starvation?

A

Protein breakdown for energy (deamination and oxidation) leading to cell destruction and organ failure

94
Q

What are the main types of lipids?

A

Triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol

95
Q

What are the building blocks of triglycerides and phospholipids?

A

Fatty acids

96
Q

What is cholesterol made of?

A

Sterol nucleus synthesized from fatty acid parts

97
Q

What is the function of triglycerides?

A

Energy storage

98
Q

What are the functions of phospholipids and cholesterol?

A

Fundamental components of cell membranes

99
Q

What does cholesterol do in the body?

A

Makes hormones, vitamin D, and aids digestion

100
Q

How are triglycerides broken down?

A

Hydrolysis releases glycerol and fatty acids

101
Q

What happens to glycerol after breakdown?

A

Converted to glucose

102
Q

What happens to fatty acids after breakdown?

A

Converted to acetyl-CoA for energy in the citric acid cycle

103
Q

When is carbohydrate the preferred energy source?

A

When carbohydrates are readily available

104
Q

What happens to excess acetyl-CoA from carbohydrates?

A

Converted to fatty acids for storage

105
Q

How are fatty acids stored?

A

Triglycerides in adipose tissue

106
Q

What happens to fatty acid storage when there are excess carbohydrates?

A

More triglycerides are formed, reducing free fatty acids available for energy

107
Q

What happens to fatty acid storage in the absence of carbohydrates?

A

Equilibrium shifts, mobilizing fatty acids for energy

108
Q

Why might it be difficult to use stored fat for energy?

A

Mobilization of fat for energy may be less efficient than using carbohydrates

109
Q

How can excess carbohydrate consumption contribute to obesity?

A

Increased conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids for storage

110
Q

When are ketone bodies produced?

A

During reduced food intake or prolonged carbohydrate restriction (e.g., starvation)

111
Q

What is the source of ketone bodies?

A

Fatty acids metabolized by the liver

112
Q

What are the three main ketone bodies?

A

Acetoacetate, β-hydroxybutyrate (β-HBO), and acetone

113
Q

How are ketone bodies normally used for energy?

A

Converted to acetyl-CoA and enter the citric acid cycle for ATP production

114
Q

What happens if too many ketone bodies are produced?

A

They accumulate in the blood, leading to ketosis

115
Q

What is the consequence of ketosis?

A

Metabolic acidosis if the body can’t keep up with removing the acid produced by ketone bodies

116
Q

Why do ketone bodies cause acidosis?

A

Two ketone bodies (acetoacetate and β-HBO) are anions of moderately strong acids

117
Q

How does the body normally handle small amounts of ketone bodies?

A

By buffering their protons to maintain blood pH

118
Q

What happens if the body can’t buffer enough ketone bodies?

A

Buffering capacity is lost, and metabolic acidosis develops

119
Q

How does blood pH affect enzymes?

A

Enzymes have optimal pH ranges for function

120
Q

What are the optimal conditions for enzymes involved in energy production?

A

A stable blood pH is necessary for optimal enzyme function

121
Q

What is cell division?

A

A process where a parent cell duplicates its DNA and divides to form two daughter cells

122
Q

Why does cell division occur?

A

For growth, repair, and replacement of tissues

123
Q

What are the four phases of cell division?

A

G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase, and M phase

124
Q

G1 phase

A

Cell growth and preparation for DNA replication

125
Q

S phase

A

DNA synthesis (replication of chromosomes)

126
Q

G2 phase

A

Additional growth and preparation for mitosis

127
Q

M phase

A

Mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)

128
Q

Interphase

A

Period between mitoses (G1, S, and G2 phases)

129
Q

How is cell division regulated?

A

Tightly controlled process

130
Q

How do chemotherapeutic drugs work?

A

By interfering with specific stages of cell division, often targeting DNA replication or mitosis

131
Q

How can targeting multiple stages be beneficial?

A

To reduce tumor survival and resistance to treatment

132
Q

What happens to injured cells?

A

They either recover or die (necrosis or apoptosis)

133
Q

What is necrosis?

A

Cell death caused by sudden injury

134
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Programmed cell death

135
Q

When does apoptosis occur during development?

A

Patterning of tissues (e.g., human fingers)

136
Q

When does apoptosis occur in adults?

A

Involution of hormone-dependent tissues, removal of autoreactive immune cells, shedding of intestinal cells, and elimination of old cells

137
Q

When does apoptosis occur in pathological conditions?

A

To eliminate damaged cells, cells with abnormal proteins, virus-infected cells, and atrophied cells in organs

138
Q

Cell shrinkage

A

Cell shrinks in size

139
Q

Chromatin condensation

A

DNA condenses in the nucleus

140
Q

Cytoplasmic blebbing

A

Formation of bubble-like protrusions on the cell surface

141
Q

Apoptotic bodies

A

Fragments of the apoptotic cell engulfed by phagocytes

142
Q

Activation of caspases

A

Enzymes that break down cellular components

143
Q

Initial phase

A

Caspases become active

144
Q

Execution phase

A

Caspases trigger a series of events leading to cell destruction

145
Q

How can caspases be activated?

A

Through two main pathways: intrinsic (mitochondrial) and extrinsic (death-receptor)

146
Q

When is the intrinsic pathway activated?

A

After cellular damage from growth factor withdrawal, DNA damage, or protein misfolding

147
Q

How is the intrinsic pathway initiated?

A

By BCL2 family proteins that control mitochondrial permeability

148
Q

What happens after mitochondrial permeability increases?

A

Death-inducing molecules like cytochrome C are released into the cytoplasm

149
Q

How does cytochrome C activate caspases?

A

By forming complexes that activate caspase-9, the initiator caspase

150
Q

What do executioner caspases do?

A

Fragment the nucleus and break down the cytoskeleton

151
Q

How is the extrinsic pathway initiated?

A

By activation of cell death receptors on the plasma membrane

152
Q

What happens after a death receptor is activated?

A

A signaling complex forms, activating caspase-10 (human)

153
Q

How does caspase-10 work?

A

Activates executioner caspases, leading to cell destruction

154
Q

What is necroptosis?

A

A programmed form of necrosis occurring when apoptosis is insufficient

155
Q

When does necroptosis occur?

A

In brain ischemia, neurodegenerative diseases, and viral infections

156
Q

How is necroptosis different from apoptosis?

A

It doesn’t involve caspase activation

157
Q

What are some effects of necroptosis?

A

Decreased ATP production, increased ROS production, lysosomal membrane damage, and cell death resembling necrosis

158
Q

What is autophagy?

A

A process where cellular components are degraded by lysosomes

159
Q

How does autophagy work?

A

Cellular organelles are engulfed by autophagosomes, which fuse with lysosomes for breakdown

160
Q

What is the role of autophagy in diseases?

A

It’s linked to cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and pathogen degradation

HAP (12 decks)

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