Week 1: Applying principles of Learning Theory and the study and measurement of behaviour

Question 1

A type of associative learning demonstrated in 1899 by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov.

Answer 1

Classical Conditioning

Question 2

The Theory of _______ __________ explains how reflex behaviour may become associated with a new stimulus that does not naturally activate that behaviour.

Answer 2

Classical Conditioning

Question 3

What are the five elements of classical conditioning?

Answer 3

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)

Question 4

In Pavlov’s original experiment on classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was:

a) salivation elicited by the meat powder
b) the meat
c) salivation elicited by a tone
d) the sound of a tone

Answer 4

d) the sound of a tone

Question 5

Hali is enjoying fish and chips for dinner while watching ‘The Bachelor’. A few hours later she is feeling nauseous and experiences food poisoning. The next week when she sits down to watch ‘The Bachelor’ she feels nauseous. ‘The Bachelor’ is…

a) The unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
b) The conditioned stimulus (CS)
c) The conditioned response (CR)
d) The unconditioned response (UCR)

Answer 5

b) The conditioned stimulus (CS)

Question 6

What is an Unconditioned Response (UCR)? You can choose more than one answer.

a) It is usually a reflex and response of the autonomic nervous system
b) Presenting it results in UCR occurring
c) It is an innate or unlearned response to the UCS.
d) It involuntarily elicits the UCR

Answer 6

a) It is usually a reflex and response of the autonomic nervous system

c) It is an innate or unlearned response to the UCS.

Question 7

Little Albert’s Fear of white rats is an example of __________conditioning.

Answer 7

classical

Question 8

____________is the decreasing strength of a response after repeated exposure to a stimulus?

Answer 8

Habituation

Question 9

Something that elicits a response or reaction?

Answer 9

Stimulus

Question 10

Classical conditioning was discovered from which experiment in the 1890s?

Answer 10

Pavlov’s dog experiment

Question 11

EXCESSIVE and IRRATIONAL fear of
an object, place or situation

Answer 11

Phobia

Question 12

Before conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus elicits ______ Response,
Neutral Stimulus does not (no response)

Answer 12

Unconditioned

Question 13

During conditioning: Repeated pairing of Unconditioned Stimulus & Neutral Stimulus results in ________ response.

Answer 13

Unconditioned

Question 14

After conditioning:
Neutral Stimulus is now a Conditioned Stimulus,
which elicits a _______ Response.

Answer 14

Conditioned

Question 15

The Unconditioned Response (UCR) is
- an innate or unlearned response to the UCS.
- usually reflexive & a response of the autonomic nervous system. True/False

Answer 15

true

Question 16

Reflex behaviour is voluntary/involuntary?

Answer 16

Involuntary
(arises automatically in response to an appropriate stimulus, e.g. salivating at the smell of food, feeling fear when facing a frightening situation)

Question 17

Emotional responses can/cannot be learned through classical conditioning.

Answer 17

can
(both positive and negative emotional responses can
be learned or conditioned)

Question 18

Temporal or spatial pairing of the 2 stimuli (CS & UCS).

Answer 18

Reinforcement

Question 19

Initial stage of learning something

Answer 19

Acquisition

Question 20

Usually several pairings of the CS and UCS are needed before the CR is fully developed.
True/False

Answer 20

True
(the first series of CS-UCS pairings, and gradual appearance and strengthening of the CR occurs
during the acquisition phase of the experiment.
* Proceeds more quickly if the intensity of the UCS increases (i.e., a louder bell or tone; a stronger
puff of air)

Question 21

This procedure produces a reduction and eventual disappearance of the CR. and involves repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS

Answer 21

Extinction
e.g. If a dog salivates at the sound of a tone, after the acquisition phase, this salivation response will
gradually disappear if the tone is presented for many trials without food being delivered.
* When extinction is completed, no salivation will occur if the tone occurs.

Question 22

The “reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposed” to the CS

Answer 22

Spontaneous Recovery

(conditioned responses have reappeared.
* Extinction does not simply “erase” the previous learning, or permanently “destroy” the CS—UCS
pairing)

Question 23

After classical conditioning with a CS, the most similar stimuli will also elicit CRs, even though they have
never been paired with the UCS.

Answer 23

Generalisation

e.g. Tones of different frequencies may still elicit a CR, or different bells might elicit salivation

Question 24

The opposite of generalisation and very important in the “real world” the subject learns to respond to one stimulus and
not to a similar stimulus.

Answer 24

Discrimination
(Impala (African antelopes) can learn to discriminate between African wild dogs (predators) that
have just eaten (& won’t attack) and hunting/hungry African wild dogs (very dangerous). Hungry
wild dogs elicit fear responses, but those that have eaten do not)

Question 25

Some discrimination is difficult to learn, due to limitations in the animal’s sensory capacities as the 2 stimuli became difficult to tell apart. True/False

Answer 25

True

Question 26

experimental neurosis

Answer 26

behaviour disturbance

Question 27

Most learning is based on voluntary behaviours that tend to produce desired outcomes, such as rewards or positive reinforcers.

Answer 27

Operant conditioning

Question 28

"a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences"

Answer 28

operant conditioning

Question 29

Conditioning in which the organism DOES NOT just react to stimuli but operates on the environment?

Answer 29

Operant conditioning

Question 30

American psychologist working in the early 1900s who used experimental laboratory methods to study problem-solving behaviour in animals.

Answer 30

Edward L. Thorndike (He was the first researcher to systematically investigate how voluntary (not reflex) behaviours can be modified by experience (learning)).

Question 31

Two experimental tools used by Thorndike.

Answer 31

Puzzle box Maze

Question 32

Law formulated from the puzzle box experiment: Behaviour resulting in pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated in the same situation.

Answer 32

Law of Effect

Question 33

_________ conditioning focuses on reflexive (involuntary) responses, while ____________ conditioning focuses on non-reflexive (voluntary) behaviours.

Answer 33

Classical, operant

Question 34

ADDING something pleasant is _______________ reinforcement.

Answer 34

Positive

Question 35

REMOVING something unpleasant is _______________ reinforcement.

Answer 35

Negative

Question 36

ADDING something unpleasant is _____________ punishment.

Answer 36

Positive

Question 37

REMOVING something pleasant is _______________ punishment.

Answer 37

Negative

Question 38

A Skinner Box was used to demonstrate ______________ conditioning

Answer 38

Operant

Question 39

Positive and negative reinforcement are examples of ______________ conditioning

Answer 39

Operant

Question 40

Reinforcers and punishers are the _____________ of behaviour and come to affect the subsequent frequency of behaviour (i.e., whether the frequency of behaviour will increase or decrease).

Answer 40

consequences

Question 41

The ‘token economy’ is used in _______________ conditioning.

Answer 41

Operant

Question 42

Monitoring your heart rate on a smart watch is an example of ________________.

Answer 42

Biofeedback

Question 43

Reinforcement that provides rewards only after a certain amount of time.

Answer 43

Fixed interval

Question 44

Reinforcement that provides rewards only after a certain amount of responses.

Answer 44

Fixed ratio

Question 45

Reinforcement that provides a reward for a certain percentage of responses, but the number of responses required before reinforcement is unpredictable.

Answer 45

Variable ratio

Question 46

Schedule of reinforcement connects reinforcement to an average interval of time but the exact time when reinforcement will be presented is unpredictable.

Answer 46

Variable interval

Question 47

When a stimulus is presented/encountered repeatedly, and the response to it weakens

Answer 47

Habituation

Question 48

The two types of associative learning (learning by association)

Answer 48

Classical conditioning & operant conditioning

Question 49

A token economy programme is an example of

Answer 49

Secondary reinforcement

Question 50

______________ conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Answer 50

Operant (According to Skinner, an operant response is: “a behavior that operates on its environment”)

Question 51

Watson wanted psychology to be a ‘hard’ not ‘armchair’ science. So, he concentrated on observable stimuli and observable responses in humans and non-humans. His goal was to be able to predict a response from a given stimulus or to specify a stimulus given the response.

Answer 51

stimulus—response behaviorism

Question 52

S-R Behaviorism tries to show relationships between stimulus and response. It looks at behavioural change in relation to environmental change. S-R relationships can be investigated no matter what happens inside the participant (physiologically or psychologically).

Answer 52

This is sometimes called the “black-box approach” to behaviour

Question 53

Behavioural processes being studied are the same/similar in all species.

Answer 53

Assumption

Question 54

In classical conditioning, a ___________ stimulus becomes a _____________ stimulus after conditioning has occurred.

Answer 54

neutral, conditioned

Question 55

In operant conditioning, if a behaviour has increased, ______________ must have been used.

Answer 55

Reinforcement

Question 56

In operant conditioning, if a behaviour has decreased, ______________ must have been used.

Answer 56

Punishment

Question 57

What involves adding something desirable to increase the frequency of a behaviour? a) positive reinforcement b) negative reinforcement c) positive punishment d) negative punishment

Answer 57

Positive reinforcement

Question 58

What involves removing something desirable to decrease the frequency of a behaviour? a) positive reinforcement b) negative reinforcement c) positive punishment d) negative punishment

Answer 58

Negative punishment

Question 59

What involves removing something unpleasant to increase the frequency of a behaviour? a) positive reinforcement b) negative reinforcement c) positive punishment d) negative punishment

Answer 59

Negative reinforcement

Question 60

What involves adding something unpleasant to decrease the frequency of a behaviour? a) positive reinforcement b) negative reinforcement c) positive punishment d) negative punishment

Answer 60

Positive punishment

Question 61

Occurs when responding is influenced by observation of others (‘models’)

Answer 61

Observational learning

Question 62

____________ occurs when an event following a response increases the tendency to make that response

Answer 62

Reinforcement

Question 63

_____________ occurs when an event following a response decreases the tendency to make that response

Answer 63

Punishment

Question 64

Stimuli that precede a response that can also influence operant behaviour

Answer 64

Discriminative stimuli (It's a cue signaling reinforcement or punishment)

Question 65

A type of mind-body technique you use to control some of your body’s functions, such as your heart rate, breathing patterns and muscle responses

Answer 65

Biofeedback

Question 66

A _________ reinforcement schedule is one in which every response is reinforced, whenever it occurs.

Answer 66

continuous

Question 67

If reinforcement is not continuous, then the schedule of reinforcement is __________.

Answer 67

intermittent

Question 68

In this schedule, reinforcement is delivered after the completion of a number of responses. The required number of responses remains constant, ________ ratio

Answer 68

Fixed ratio (FR)

Question 69

A schedule of reinforcement where a behaviour is reinforced after a random number of responses, ________ ratio.

Answer 69

Variable ratio (VR)

Question 70

A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response is reinforced only after a set amount of time has elapsed, _______ interval.

Answer 70

Fixed interval (FI)

Question 71

A schedule of reinforcement where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, ________ interval.

Answer 71

Variable interval (VI)

Question 72

The process of training a learned behaviour that would not normally occur. For each action closer to the desired outcome, a reinforcement or reward is provided until the target behaviour is achieved.

Answer 72

Shaping

Question 73

Three main stages of shaping:

Answer 73

1. specify target or goal behaviour 2. identify a starting point response 3. reinforce starting response until desired target is achieved

Question 74

A favourable or positive outcome is more likely to strengthen a response if it immediately follows the response. Conditioning proceeds slowly if there is a delay between a response and the delivery of the reinforcer.

Answer 74

Delayed reinforcement

Question 75

Through repeated pairings with a primary reinforcer (unconditioned), a secondary reinforcer (conditioned) can also act as a reinforcer.

Answer 75

Conditioned reinforcement

Question 76

Reinforcers that satisfy biological needs (e.g., food for a hungry organism, or water for a thirsty one).

Answer 76

Primary reinforcers

Question 77

Reinforcers that depend on learning- for humans include money, tokens, material possessions etc.

Answer 77

Secondary reinforcers

Question 78

A reward system used in a behaviour modification programs. It involves providing tangible rewards (tokens, food, stickers, etc.) for positive behaviours.

Answer 78

Token economy programmes

Question 79

Technique where people can ‘recondition’ themselves to produce more ‘desirable’ behaviours (e.g. fewer cigarettes or cups of coffee, more time spent studying), since “what is learned can be unlearned”

Answer 79

Behaviour modification (used to change or remove unwanted behaviour)

Question 80

Educational technique characterised by self-paced, self-administered instruction presented in logical sequence and with much repetition of concepts.

Answer 80

Programmed learning

Question 81

Learning that occurs when responding is influenced by observation of others (models)

Answer 81

Observational Learning or modelling

Question 82

Classical and operant conditioning can occur through observational learning (in humans & nonhumans). True/False

Answer 82

True

Question 83

Psychologist who proposed Social Learning Theory?

Answer 83

Albert Bandura

Question 84

Experiment that observed link between modelling and aggression?

Answer 84

Bobo doll experiment

Question 85

Four necessary components for successful modelling (vicarious reinforcement):

Answer 85

1. Attention 2. Retention - ability to memorise modeled response 3. Motor Reproduction - physical ability to perform modeled response 4. Motivation - incentive to display modeled response

Question 86

To improve animal welfare & psychological wellbeing (enhancing quality of life) and promotes retention of species-specific behaviours.

Answer 86

Behavioural enrichment

Question 87

In ___________ environments, animals can usually escape from severe conflict situations. For example, to avoid fighting with a conspecific, the animal can offer appeasement/submissive gestures or flee.

Answer 87

Natural

Question 88

In ________ environments, animals cannot escape from conflict situations, which can lead to extreme stress and may result in stereotypic behaviours.

Answer 88

Captive

Question 89

Name for: * ‘abnormal’ or aberrant behaviours * repetitive behaviour patterns * and have no obvious function or goal & can be indicative of a welfare problem.

Answer 89

Stereotypical behaviours

Question 90

Behavioural indicators of poor animal welfare:

Answer 90

Pacing Head flicking Weaving or ‘dancing’ Biting bars Pattern swimming Digging

Question 91

Burghardt’s (1997) 5th ‘why’ (determinants) of behaviour

Answer 91

What is private experience of animal presenting the behaviour? Personal world, subjective experience (individual)

Question 92

Tinbergen’s (1963) four ‘whys’ (determinants) of behaviour:

Answer 92

1. Function (survival / adaptive value): what is it for? 2. Causation (control): how does it work? 3. Ontogeny (development): how does it develop? 4. Phylogeny (evolution): how did it evolve?

Question 93

Example: chest-beating by gorillas 1. Its function: alarm, display, distance communication 2. Its causation: arm & hand flexibility, inflatable chest sacs 3. Its ontogeny: begins as feeble chest Slapping in young gorillas, full range of expression only in silverback males 4. Its evolution: related to drumming in chimpanzees & humans? 5. Individual’s private experience: probably confidence building

Question 94

A descriptive catalogue of behaviours that occur within the species

Answer 94

the ethogram

Question 95

Term describing an instinctive behavioural sequence that is highly stereotyped and species-characteristic, ______ _______ pattern.

Answer 95

Fixed Action

Question 96

INNATE BEHAVIOURS FIXED ACTION PATTERNS (FAPs): Strongly biologically determined; 2 different types (degrees):

Answer 96

rituals displays

Question 97

Fixed Action Pattern that is stereotyped (same form throughout a species) * shaped by natural selection * strongly controlled by genetic mechanisms

Answer 97

Rituals

Question 98

Learning without obvious reward

Answer 98

Latent learning

Question 99

Fixed Action Pattern that is exaggerated ritualized signals * more stereotyped * more complex * may include autonomic responses (e.g., piloerection, changes in blood flow, intention movements, displacement movements etc.)

Answer 99

Displays

Question 100

Silent bared teeth face, ranges from less to more diverse such as in primates and humans.

Answer 100

function of facial expressions in particular species (e.g. fear, submission, affiliation)

Question 101

Early learning limited to a short critical period; Irreversible; Prefigures later responses

Answer 101

Imprinting

Question 102

Solving a problem through perceiving interrelationships

Answer 102

Insight learning

Question 103

Behaviour (act) or structure which alters behaviour of others - effective because of receiver’s response

Answer 103

Signal

Question 104

Feature of the world, animate or inanimate, that can be used as a guide to future action

Answer 104

Cue

Question 105

Evolutionary process that stereotypes a cue into a signal

Answer 105

Ritualization

Question 106

Signal whose cost is greater than required by sheer efficacy (effectiveness)

Answer 106

Handicap (huge size, cheeks... requires more food) vulnerability

Question 107

Loss of fitness resulting from making a signal

Answer 107

Cost

Question 108

Signal whose intensity is causally related to quality being signaled & which cannot be faked (e.g., olfactory secretions used for marking)

Answer 108

Index

Question 109

Signal whose reliability does not depend on its cost - i.e. not a handicap- & which can be made by most members of the population- i.e. not an index (e.g., communal troop defensive vocalisations)

Answer 109

Minimal cost signal

Question 110

A signal whose form is similar to its meaning (e.g., pointing)

Answer 110

Icon

Question 111

A signal whose form is unrelated to its meaning (e.g., language)

Answer 111

Symbol

Question 112

Dan and Joel, both 4-year-olds, have seen all the Spiderman movies. Joel's mother recently found the boys standing on the garage roof, ready to try jumping across to the next roof. What best accounts for the boy's behaviour? a. instinctive drift b. observational learning c. immediate reinforcement d. classical conditioning

Answer 112

b. observational learning

Question 113

In Pavlov's experiments on the salivary conditioning of dogs, the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) was: a. a tone b. salivation to the sound of a tone c. the presentation of food d. salivation to the food

Answer 113

c. the presentation of food

Question 114

Extinction occurs most quickly after which schedule of reinforcement? A. variable ratio B. fixed interval C. variable interval D. continuous

Answer 114

B. fixed interval

Question 115

Positive and negative reinforcers are similar in that both: a. involve consequences that are aversive b. involve consequences that are positive or pleasant c. are used to strengthen or increase the likelihood of behaviours d. are used to weaken or decrease the likelihood of behaviours

Answer 115

c. are used to strengthen or increase the likelihood of behaviours

Question 116

In classical conditioning discrimination refers to how a: a. CR can be triggered by many different stimuli b. CR is triggered by one stimulus but not be others c. CR can fade when a CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS d. UCS can become a conditioned stimulus

Answer 116

b. CR is triggered by one stimulus but not be others

Question 117

Long after her conditioned fear of dogs had been extinguished, Marcy experienced a unexpected surge of nervousness when first shown her cousin's new cocker spaniel. Her unexpected nervousness best illustrates a. latent learning b. spontaneous recovery c. delayed reinforcement d. shaping

Answer 117

b. spontaneous recovery

Question 118

If a child has a tantrum and receives a slap on the wrist, this is an example of: a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. positive punishment d. negative punishment

Answer 118

c. positive punishment

Question 119

When you have a few drinks you really 'come out of your shell' and 'lose your inhibitions', which makes you want to drink more. This is an example of: A. negative reinforcement B. positive reinforcement C. positive punishment D. negative punishment

Answer 119

B. positive reinforcement

Question 120

Luke gets paid a fixed sum after every four tennis racquets he restrings. He is on a _________ schedule of reinforcement. A. fixed interval B. fixed ratio C. variable interval D. variable ratio

Answer 120

B. fixed ratio

Question 121

A patient starts chemotherapy and becomes ill each time after he receives it. After a few weeks of treatment, he develops anticipatory nausea in the waiting room at the hospital. In this instance, the _________ would be the Unconditioned Response (UCR). A. Nausea induced by chemotherapy B. Waiting room C. Chemotherapy D. Nausea induced by the waiting room

Answer 121

A. Nausea induced by chemotherapy

Question 122

A reason poker machines can be so addictive is because they use the schedule of reinforcement least prone to extinction. Which schedule is this? a. fixed ratio b. fixed interval c. variable interval d. variable ratio

Answer 122

d. variable ratio

Question 123

Abby has always hated going to the dentist and would tremble with anxiety whenever she had to undergo any dental treatment. Now when she hears a dental drill on TV she begins to shake and her heart races. In this instance the drill is: A. an unconditioned stimulus B. a conditioned response C. an unconditioned response D. a conditioned stimulus.

Answer 123

D. a conditioned stimulus.

Question 124

For some children who bite themselves or bang their heads, squirting water into their faces when they hurt themselves has been observed to decrease the frequency of these self-abusive behaviors. This best illustrates the potential value of: A. punishment B. conditioned reinforcers. C. negative reinforcers D. latent learning.

Answer 124

A. punishment

Question 125

A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n) a. specific time period has elapsed b. unpredictable time period has elapsed c. specified number of responses have been made d. unpredictable number of responses have been made

Answer 125

c. specified number of responses have been made

Question 126

The process of selectively reinforcing responses that are closer and closer approximations of some desired response is called: a. stimulus discrimination b. selection c. shaping d. step-wise conditioning

Answer 126

c. shaping

Question 127

A hay fever sufferer sees a flower on a restaurant table and, not realizing it is plastic, experiences a rapidly accelerating heartbeat and profuse perspiration. This most clearly illustrates that stress reactions can result from: A. operant conditioning B. the self-fulfilling prophecy C. classical conditioning. D. observational learning

Answer 127

C. classical conditioning.

Question 128

The reappearance, after a time lapse, of an extinguished CR is called a. generalization b. spontaneous recovery c. discrimination d. higher-order conditioning

Answer 128

b. spontaneous recovery

Question 129

In Pavlov's experiments, the taste of food triggered the dog's salivation. Salivation to the taste of food was a(n): a. conditioned response b. unconditioned response c. unconditioned stimulus d. conditioned stimulus

Answer 129

b. unconditioned response