Water and Carbon Cycles Flashcards

Question

How is water transfered from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere?

Answer 1

Evaporation and transpiration

Answer 2

Infiltration and percolation

Answer 3

Approximately 96.5%

Answer 4

1.338 billion km3.

Answer 5

As land ice, glaciers and permafrost (cryospheric water) As groundwater, lakes, soil, wetland, rivers and biomass (terrestrial water) As vapour and liquid droplets in the atmosphere (atmospheric water)

Answer 6

A body of porous rock or sediment saturated with groundwater.

Answer 7

In porous (contain air pockets) and permeable (allow water through) rocks such as sandstone and chalk.

Answer 8

Northern and Eastern Europe Throughout Indonesia and eastern Australia Northern and central Africa Throughout South America

Answer 9

Water enters the rocks either directly or very slowly through overlying soil. Soils vary massively in their ability to store and transfer water- this is the soil moisture budget. Porous sandy soils store little but transfer vast amounts of water. Clay soils store huge amounts of water, but allow very little to transfer through.

Answer 10

The water table.

Answer 11

Yes, through careful management.

Answer 12

In response to groundwater flow, water abstraction by people or by recharge (additional water flowing into the rock).

Answer 13

Aquifiers found in the deserts of Africa, Australia and the Middle East. These were formed thousands of years ago when the climate in these regions was much wetter.

Answer 14

If they are used unsustainably for irrigation as this increases the risk of them turning into saline aquifiers. This is because seawater can then infiltrate into the rocks.

Answer 15

Daily to geological (1000s of years).

Answer 16

12,900 km3

Answer 17

Yes, and so any changes can be a direct cause of climate change.

Answer 18

Solid- ice Liquid- water Gas- water vapour, which is the most prevalent.

Answer 19

It absorbs, reflects and scatters incoming solar radiation- this keeps the atmosphere at a temperature that can maintain life.

Answer 20

Cold air cannot hold as much water vapour as warm air, which results in air over the poles being quite dry, whereas air over the tropics is very humid.

Answer 21

An increase in water vapour (even small) will lead to an increase in atmospheric temperature.

Answer 22

A small increase in global temperature would lead to a rise in global water vapour levels, thus further enhancing the atmospheric warming.

Answer 23

A visible mass of water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.

Answer 24

Cloud formation is the result of air in the lower atmosphere becoming saturated due to: - Cooling of the air, leading to condensation - Adding of extra water vapour

Answer 25

When the cloud droplets grow large enough.

Answer 26

As it contains dissolved salts

Answer 27

Alkaline but have become more acidic over time

Answer 28

Increased absoption of carbon from the atmosphere as this forms carbonic acid.

Answer 29

Areas where water is in a solid form, for example ice.

Answer 30

Sea ice- e.g. Arctic Ocean Permafrost (permanently frozen ground)- e.g. Siberia Ice caps- e.g. Iceland Ice sheets- e.g. Greenland Alpine glaciers- e.g. The Alps

Answer 31

When water in the oceans is cooled well below freezing.

Answer 32

The freezing of the Arctic Ocean every winter.

Answer 33

A mass of glacial ice that is greater than 50,000 km2 in area.

Answer 34

Antarctica and Greenland

Answer 35

North America, northern Europe and Argentina

Answer 36

14 million km2

Answer 37

1.7 million km2

Answer 38

In high latitudes where summer temperatures are not warm enough to melt winter snowfall. As such, layers of snow piled up over thousands of years, compressing older snow layers into ice.

Answer 39

Yes, slowly flowing downhill under their own weight.

Answer 40

At the coast, they move through faster moving outlets such as ice streams, glaciers and ice shelves.

Answer 41

Temporary sea level rise as they enter the ocean (due to displacement) but they then melt in the water itself.

Answer 42

They contain enormous quantities of frozen water.

Answer 43

Thick layers of land-based ice that are smaller than 50000 km2.

Answer 44

In mountainous areas, and they tend to have a dome-shaped centre at the highest point.

Answer 45

They flow outwards, covering everything in their path and feeding ice into several surrounding valley glaciers.

Answer 46

All over the world, from polar to mountainous regions for example The Himalayas.

Answer 47

The Furtwangler glacier Found on the summit of Mt Kilamanjaro

Answer 48

Thick masses of ice found in deep valleys and upland hollows. They are usually fed by ice caps or small corrie glaciers.

Answer 49

15,000 valley glaciers which supply water to several rivers, for example Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra. These rivers are the lifeline for millions of people in South Asian countries such as India and Bangladesh.

Answer 50

Ground (soil or rock) that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years.

Answer 51

1 to 1500 metres.

Answer 52

During the last ice age (110000 to 12000 years ago), having also survived the recent warm period known as the Holocene.

Answer 53

Beneath both glaciated and ice-free regions. It is also found along the Antarctic coastline underneath near-frozen seas.

Answer 54

When sea levels were much lower, and they have been preserved ever since by the cold ocean waters above.

Answer 55

Permafrost has been melting due to global climate warming. This is releasing large amounts of trapped methane, which in turn contributes further to the greenhouse effect.

Answer 56

Surface water Ground water Soil water Biological water

Answer 57

The free-flowing water of rivers, as well as the surface water stores of ponds and lakes.

Answer 58

Streams of water within a defined channel, they act as both a store and transfer of water.

Answer 59

Rivers transfer water from the ground, soils and the atmosphere to a store such as wetlands, lakes or oceans.

Answer 60

The Amazon and it accounts for 1/5 of the world's river flow.

Answer 61

7,050,000 km2

Answer 62

209,000m3 per second into the Atlantic Ocean- this is more than the next 7 largest rivers combined.

Answer 63

Stores of fresh water found in hollows on the land surface larger than two hectares in area. Anything smaller is deemed to be a pond.

Answer 64

In the Northern Hemisphere at higher latitudes

Answer 65

At least 2 million.

Answer 66

56,000 (greater than 10,000 m2)

Answer 67

Caspian Sea 78,200km2

Answer 68

A lake which is a remnant of an ancient ocean and is about 5.5 million years old. It is generally fresh water, though becomes more saline in the south where there a fewer rivers flowing into it.

Answer 69

Lake Baikal in Siberia, which reaches depths of 1637m.

Answer 70

Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, which can be natural or artificial, permanent or temporary and static or flowing. Importantly, there is a dominance of vegetation.

Answer 71

Water covers the soil Water is present at or near the surface of the soil all year round Water is present for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season.

Answer 72

Aquatic and terrestrial animal species.

Answer 73

There is a prolonged presence of water. Furthermore, unique wetland soils are created.

Answer 74

Soils Topography Climate Hydrology Water chemistry Vegetation Human disturbance

Answer 75

At all latitudes on all continents except Antarctica.

Answer 76

Wetlands. The peatlands, rivers, lakes and shallow bays cover 60% of the total surface area.

Answer 77

Store enormous amounts of greenhouse gases and provide habitats for a wide range of Arctic species.

Answer 78

The Pantanal is the world's largest freshwater wetland system, it is a complex system of marshlands, floodplains, lagoons and interconnected drainage lines. It extends through central-western Brazil, eastern Bolivia and eastern Paraguay.

Answer 79

Transport Water supply Flood prevention

Answer 80

Water that collects underground in the pore spaces of rock up to an agreed depth of 4km.

Answer 81

A borehole in the Kola Peninsula in northern Russia found huge quantities of hot mineralised water at a depth of 13km.

Answer 82

The depth at which rock becomes completely saturated with water.

Answer 83

When groundwater eventually emerges at the surface at springs.

Answer 84

Extensive extraction for use in irrigating agricultural land in dry areas.

Answer 85

Water which is held, together with air, in the unsaturated upper layers of soil.

Answer 86

Weather and climate Surface runoff Soil erosion Slope failure Resevoir levels Water quality

Answer 87

Controlling the exchange of water and heat between the land surface and atmosphere through evapotranspiration. It plays an important role in the development of weather patterns and production of precipitation.

Answer 88

Water stores in plants (biomass).

Answer 89

No as they store relatively little water.

Answer 90

Vegetation cover and type (e.g. areas of dense rainforest store much more water than desert plants).

Answer 91

Plants/trees take in water through their roots. This is transported to and stored in the trunk/branches. Water is lost by transpiration through the stomata on the underside of leaves. This process through plants helps to regulate the climate in specific environments.

Answer 92

They gather water from deep underground via their taproots and then store it for a long time in their succulent trunk. Minimal water loss from tiny needles.

Answer 93

Can store vast amounts of water in its trunk, although this is mainly for strength rather than for tree growth.

Answer 94

If vegetation is destroyed (for example by deforestation), the store is forever lost to the atmosphere, preventing the recycling of water and causing the climate to become more desert-like.

Answer 95

1-2 months.

Answer 96

2-6 months.

Answer 97

2-6 months.

Answer 98

20-100 years.

Answer 99

50-100 years.

Answer 100

100-200 years.

Answer 101

10,000 years.

Answer 102

It may be quickly percolated into bedrock. It may be transpired by plants into the atmosphere. It may be transferred into rivers by throughflow. It may be evaporated into the atmosphere.

Answer 103

- The freezing and melting of the Arctic sea ice every winter/summer. - The passage of weather fronts and/or storms which bring deluges of atmospheric rain. - The growth and retreat of glaciers in-between ice ages.

Answer 104

Liquid water Gaseous water vapour Soild ice

Answer 105

Energy in the form of latent heat.

Answer 106

Atmospheric processes, such as cloud/precipitation formation.

Answer 107

When heat energy from solar radiation is transferred to surface water, encouraging liquid water to change state into gaseous water vapour.

Answer 108

The amount of solar energy available The availability of water The humidity of the air (higher humidity=less evaporation) Air temperature (warmer air can hold more vapour = more evaporation).

Answer 109

Transpiration.

Answer 110

Where water is transported from the roots of a plant to its leaves and lost through stomata on the underside of the leaves.

Answer 111

Hot Dry Windy

Answer 112

By using energy (latent heat).

Answer 113

When air is cooled sufficiently as it will be able to hold less vapour.

Answer 114

Excess water in the air is then converted back into liquid water.

Answer 115

Small particles to condense on (e.g. smoke, salt, dist). These are known as condensation nuclei. Surfaces that are colder than the dew point temperature (e.g. leaves, grass, windows). If colder than freezing point, then the vapur sublimates to form hoar frost.

Answer 116

The direct course of all forms of precipitation.

Answer 117

- When temperature of the air is reduced to dew point- this occurs when warm moist air passes over a cold surface. Also, on a clear winter's night when heat is radiated out to space when the ground gets colder, cooling the air directly in contact with it. - When the volume of air increases but there is not addition of heat. This happens when air rises and expands in the lower pressure of the upper atmosphere, when either (relief or frontal rain occurs).

Answer 118

When moist air is forced to rise over mountains.

Answer 119

Masses of air of different temperatures meet- the less dense warm air rises over the cooler air.

Answer 120

Global atmospheric circulation.

Answer 121

The ITCZ moving north/south.

Answer 122

At the equator, high temperatures result in high rates of evaporation. The warm moist air rises, cools and condenses to form towering banks of cloud and heavy rainfall in the ITCZ.

Answer 123

The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone is a low pressure zone near the equator.

Answer 124

The convergence of warm Tropical air and cold Arctic air. The boundary of these two air masses creates the Polar Front- resulting in rising air and cloud formation.

Answer 125

Strong upper level winds in the Jet Stream drive unstable weather systems across the mid latitiudes.

Answer 126

Yes, for example convectional thunderstorms. However, this is very 'hit and miss' but does demonstrate that variarions in water cycle processes can occur at the local scale.

Answer 127

A visable aggregate of minute water droplets suspended in the atmosphere near the Earth's surface. In cold environments/temperatures.

Answer 128

When snow falls on glaciers and ice sheets it becomes compressed and will enter long terms store as layers of glacial ice.

Answer 129

No, they are not over geological time.

Answer 130

Snow accumulated during the winter adds to the mass of a glacier or ice sheet. In the Summer, melting occurs and ice calves (breaks away). Meltwater evaporates and even ice directly produces steam (this is known as sublimation).

Answer 131

The altitude where annual accumulation and melting are equal.

Answer 132

Yes- most glaciers in the world are now shrinking and retreating.

Answer 133

100m- as water was locked up as snow and ice

Answer 134

The melting of the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets could result in a catastrophic 60m rise in sea levels.

Answer 135

Rising seas would destabilise ice shelves, triggering calving and further melting.

Answer 136

50m due to a decline in the amount of water stores as snow and ice.

Answer 137

Deforstation Storms Urbanisation Seasonal changes Farming.

Answer 138

Human and physical factors occuring over a short time period (e.g. an intense rainstorm over an urban area).

Answer 139

Infiltration

Answer 140

Stored as surface storage Evaporate Flow downslope as overland flow- this will often lead to flooding.

Answer 141

More water enters local water stores as there is less interception and so there is a faster lag time.

Answer 142

Increases the volume of water in water stores are ground will become saturated, decreasing the lag time and increasing the flood risk.

Answer 143

Decreases the lag time as water gets to stores faster due to the compression of soils and the amount of ground water due to irrigation. Ditches can drain the land and encourage water to flow quickly to rivers.

Answer 144

Freezing water before it reaches lakes or other stores can reduce the volume of water in store. Cryospheric melting can increase the flood risk.

Answer 145

Impermeable surfaces reduce infiltration. Trees are likely to be cur down reducing interception. Urbanisation will decrease the lag time, increasing the flood risk.

Answer 146

A graph of how key inputs/outputs of water within a drainage basin change over the course of a year. These are monthly precipitation.

Answer 147

Runoff= precipitation + evapotranspiration +/- changes in storage Runoff= how much water stays on the surface Precipitation= input of water Evapotranspiration= output of water Changes in storage= amount of water than can be stores

Answer 148

It allows us to understand more about the balance of drainage basin processes over the course of a year. We can use them to predict when a river's levels are likely to be higher (flood risk) or lower.

Answer 149

Occurs during late winter/early spring when inputs of precipitation exceed outputs of evapotranspiration. The soil pores are saturated, meaning that water can't infiltrate and stays on the surface.

Answer 150

Occurs during later spring/early summer. Evapotranspiration exceeds precipiation. Water is also taken up by the roots of growing plants, and is initially replaced by water infiltrating from the surface (until it runs out).

Answer 151

Soil moisture stores are slowly replenished as precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. Soil pores slowly fill up with water until they become saturated- this is known as FIELD CAPACITY.

Answer 152

Towards the middle and late summer, all the stores of water in the soil have been used up by plants and lost through evapotranspiration(which has exceeded precipitation for a long time). This only really occurs in more arid locations.

Answer 153

Evapotranspiration > precipitation. Soil moisture utilisation by growing plants leaves the soil depleted of water. River levels start to fall.

Answer 154

Evapotranspiration > precipitation All soil moisture has been used up. Soil moisture deficit means that infiltration levels are at their highest. River levels are at their lowest.

Answer 155

Precipitation > evapotranspiration Soil moisture recharge as excess precipitation recharges soil water storeage until it reaches field capacity. River levels slowly rise.

Answer 156

Precipitation > evapotranspiration Soil moisture excess means the soil is saturated. No infiltration takes place, so river levels are at their highest.

Answer 157

Winter and spring as there will be more water in the soil. This will cause the water table to rise causing higher river channel levels as more groundwater (baseflow), soil water (throughflow) and surface water (overland flow) will flow into the river.

Answer 158

Summer due to low precipitation inputs and higher evapotranspiration output. The soil dries and the water tabel drops- leading to lower river channel levels.

Answer 159

If soil conditions are so dry that infiltration is difficult and the intensity of the storm is too great to allow the soil time to 'soak' up the water, summer floods could occur.

Answer 160

Where a river flows into a larger body of water.

Answer 161

A stream or river that flows into a larger stream or river.

Answer 162

A flat area of land next to a river which is subject to flooding.

Answer 163

The area of land around the river that is drained by the river and its tributaries.

Answer 164

A flowing together of two or more streams.

Answer 165

An area of land that drains water into a specific waterbody.

Answer 166

Starting point where the river begins in high ground.

Answer 167

Water that falls to the earth in any form: rain, sleet, hail and snow.

Answer 168

Moisture lost into the atmosphere by sun's heat and wind.

Answer 169

Biological process where water is lost through minute pores in plants.

Answer 170

Raindrops fall on vegetation, preventing it from reaching the soil and river.

Answer 171

Water reaches the ground by flowing down trunks or stems or by dropping off leaves.

Answer 172

The passage of water into the soil. This takes place quickly at the beginning of a storm, but as soil becomes saturated, infiltration falls rapidly. Sand= high infiltration Clay= less infiltration.

Answer 173

Water in this zone moves laterally at a very slow rate (it can take thousands of years to reach the river) to the river and provides the main input of water into a river during a dry season. Often called baseflow.

Answer 174

Water reaches underlying rock and its progress slows. This vertical movement is called percolation and it depends on the nature of the rock.

Answer 175

Water flows laterally through the soil to the channel.

Answer 176

Movement of water above the soil. Occurs during heavy rainfall or when the ground is saturated. Very rare except in urban areas.

Answer 177

Precipitation directly entering the river channel.

Answer 178

Water stored on the surface on the earth.

Answer 179

Water stored in soil above the water table.

Answer 180

The boundary between saturated and unsaturated soils.

Answer 181

Water stored below the water table in saturated soil or rock.

Answer 182

Precipitation

Answer 183

Channel fall Interception Through flow Infiltration Percolation Groundwater flow Overland flow Stemflow

Answer 184

Soil storage Surface water Groundwater

Answer 185

Transpiration Evaporation

Answer 186

Overland flow

Answer 187

Deforestation- less interception Steep relief- too fast to infiltrate Impermeable surfaces- cannot infiltrate Agricultural machinery- compressed soils saturate faster Impermeable bedrock- prevents percolation Snow melt/heavy precipitation- rapid infiltration leads to saturated soils.

Answer 188

Throughflow and groundwater flow. Water can infiltrate into the soil and also percolate into the saturate groundwater stores below. Water travels slowly to the river through pores in the rock so the river fills very slowly and floods are unlikely to occur.

Answer 189

Reforestation- increased interception Flat ground- encourages infiltration Permeable green spaces- infiltration Permeable rock deep underground- percolation occurs preventing soil becoming saturated.

Answer 190

Depth and texture of the soil. Coare and sandy soil absorbs and transfers water quickly, especially through 'pipes' in the soil caused by animal activity or the growth of plant roots- increasing flood risk. Such soils have a low field capacity as retain very little water in storage.

Answer 191

Clay soils. These soils tend to be wet as they have tiny pore spaces which do not allow water to transfer easily.

Answer 192

No further downward movement of water will occur.

Answer 193

Water will seep into cracks and holes within the rock and pass through slowly over the course of tens to hundereds of years- providing an important water store in arid areas.

Answer 194

Jointed rocks for example limestone. Cheddar Gorge (limestone) in Somerset has a water flow of a calculated rate of 683cm per hour, this is considerabke faster then throughflow in the soil.

Answer 195

SS= 200cm per hour UCG= 20000cm per hour

Answer 196

Scrub/bush

Answer 197

Coniferous forest/tundra

Answer 198

7-15% in growing season

Answer 199

20% with leaves (spring/summer) 17% without leaves (autumn/winter)

Answer 200

40% in growing season

Answer 201

P= O + E +/- S S= P - O - E P= precipitation O= total runoff (streamflow) E= evapotranspiration S= storage (in soil and rock)

Answer 202

It helps hydrologists plan for future water supply and flood control.

Answer 203

Total runoff (expressed as a percentage of precipitation). This is a measure of the proportion of the total precipitation that makes its way into rivers and streams.

Answer 204

High temperature and low humidity.

Answer 205

The upper part of the basin is characterised by steep slopes, acidic soils and grassland which used to be forested but was cleared to make way for sheep grazing- reducing interception. Ditches have been dug to drain the land to make it more productive however, this has increased the speed of water transfer, making the river more prone for flooding. The rocks in much of the upper river basin are impermeable mudstones, shales and grits, due to this groundwater flow is limited throughout the basin and soils easily become saturated. This encourages overland flow, increasing the risk of flooding downstream, particularly in Hereford.

Answer 206

A graph that shows the variations in a river's discharge over a short period of time, usually during/after a rainstorm.

Answer 207

The amount of water in the river passing a given point at a given time. It is measured in cumecs (cubic metres per second).

Answer 208

River discharge

Answer 209

Amount of rainfall that fell

Answer 210

The period of rising river discharge following a period of rainfall.

Answer 211

The period of time where the river's discharge is falling after it has reached peak discharge.

Answer 212

The time between peak rainfall and peak discharge.

Answer 213

The discharge of the river above base flow caused by a storm event.

Answer 214

Short lag time Steep rising limb Much higher peak discharge.

Answer 215

Deforestation Saturated soil or frozen ground Impermeable bedrock Steep relief Small, round drainage basin Agricultural land Urban areas in the drainage basin.

Answer 216

Long lag time Gentle rising limb Much lower peak discharge

Answer 217

94% (low intensity rain)- less infiltration 15% (high intensity rain)

Answer 218

Rainfall levels- local Deforestation Antecendent conditions.

Answer 219

Deforestation Plant species- regional.

Answer 220

Deforestation Abstraction of water- local Urbanisation- local Engineering projects

Answer 221

Deforestation Anthropogenic climate change- global.

Answer 222

Convectional

Answer 223

The biotic pump theory says that as the forests’ condensation pushes vapour into the air and the vapour condenses from a gas to a liquid, it creates a low-pressure area, pulling the wind in. This happens on a continental scale.

Answer 224

It has a high biodiversity It has the ability to generate more than 1/4 of the world's river discharge.

Answer 225

South America.

Answer 226

Cattle feed Beef Sugar cane Ethanol.

Answer 227

The vegetation has shallower roots and fewer leaves. This means that it uses less water than the forest it replaces.

Answer 228

Less water evaporates from the land surface to be returned to the atmosphere; more water runs off the land and stream flow is increased.

Answer 229

No, but there is a large increase with 50-100% of the basin deforested.

Answer 230

After the initial rise in discharge river levels will fall to new lows. Once the water has left the system via the river, and with less vegetation, there will be much less evapotranspiration. This means less atmospheric moisture to condense into rainfall, which means lower river levels in the long term.

Answer 231

Deforestation Soil drainage Water abstraction.

Answer 232

Deforestation.

Answer 233

Remove excess water from the soil. It is carried out through a network of perforated clay tubes 60-120 cm below the surface called 'tiles'. Water would seep into the small spaces within the tiles and drain away.

Answer 234

Plastic tubing with small perforations to allow water entry.

Answer 235

When the water table is higher than the tile, water flows into the tubing; lowering the water table over several days as the water drains away from the field.

Answer 236

Between June and October as the water table isn't high enough.

Answer 237

It increases productivity of the field; for every $1 spent on drainage, the grower gets back $1.20-$1.90 in extra corn or soybean harvest for example.

Answer 238

It can be expensive but essential in areas with poorly drained soils.

Answer 239

- It improves soil structure, allowing greater root penetration. - Improved aeration which means it is move favourable for microorganisms to thrive. - Improved aeration increases the ease with which the soil can be warmed, making germination more likely. - Compaction of soil by heavy agricultural machinery and grazing animals is less likely.

Answer 240

- Drains artificially increase the speed of throughflow through the soil, increasing the risk of flooding. - The dry topsoil can be subject of wind erosion if not properly protected, this is a problem mainly in East Anglia and East Midlands. - Nitrate loss which could lead to eutrophication in local watercourses. This could decrease biodiversity as fish struggle to survive due to the amount of algae.

Answer 241

Use controlled discharge.

Answer 242

The water table stays high during the off-season when crops are not growing. This increases the rate of denitrification (a process of converting nitrate into harmless nitrogen gas as soon as the saturated soils warm up in spring, reducing the risk of eutrophication).

Answer 243

The Mediterranean coastlines of Italy, Spain and Turkey- mainly due to the demands of the tourist industry.

Answer 244

Malta due to saline intrusion. As a result of this large amounts of money have been spent on desalinisation plants.

Answer 245

Sinking water tables due to the drying up of feeder springs in the dry season.

Answer 246

Sustaining surface resevoirs of water such as lakes and wetlands. These can be used for tourism and leisure activities.

Answer 247

Irrigation

Answer 248

A deep hole intended to tap a natural resource, in this case it would be water.

Answer 249

400m deep boreholes contaminated by seawater intrusion.

Answer 250

Southern England.

Answer 251

Winter months due to low evapotranspiration levels. The chlk aquifer is replenished by rainfall that lands on exposed chalk hills of the North and South Downs and the Chilterns.

Answer 252

Rising from authumn through winter and into spring. Falling in summer due to evapotranspiration exceeding rainfall levels. Soil moisture deficits build up so little percolation takes place. In summer water does still levae the chalk from springs as well as abstraction.

Answer 253

Groundwater streams which feed into rivers in chalk environments.

Answer 254

The position of the water table- higher in winter/spring and lower in summer. If there is a particularly dry winter, then recharge is low, leading them to dry up completely.

Answer 255

Underground resevoirs of high quality groundwater which can be safely abstracted for public water supply. However, over-abstraction has meant that a number of streams dry-up in summer. This can impact economically on local fishing, tourism and agricultural industries.

Answer 256

A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its catchment area

Answer 257

Forms exposed chalk upland areas in NW in the Chilterns. Falls beneath the London area. Forms exposed chalk upland areas in the SE in the North Downs.

Answer 258

When precipitation falls on the exposed porous chalk and soaks in, it is then stored and released naturally at spring in contact with impermeable Greensand or Palaeogene rocks.

Answer 259

During the 19th and 20th centuries from boreholes and wells which penetrate down to the chalk. In particular, the chalk-basal sands aquifer fell as low as 88m below sea level in the 1960s.

Answer 260

Since the 1960s, water-intensive industries (such as brewing) relocated from London or closed down. Service industries became more dominant, resulting in a significant fall in water abstraction.

Answer 261

Yes, groundwater levels have began to increase by 3m/year since the 1990s. It is a threat to structures in the London Basin such as the London Underground and building foundations.

Answer 262

General Aquifer Research, Development and Investigation Team (GARDIT). Levels since returned to satisfactory levels by the year 2000.

Answer 263

Rose 4-8m in the early 2000s, but then levelled off.

Answer 264

Fell 5-7m since 2000 (as a result of over-abstraction).

Answer 265

Fallen by up to 12m in places (as a result of over-abstraction).

Answer 266

Yes. Chalk outcrops around the River Thames (Greenwich to Woolwich) are now at increased risk of saline intrusion. If grounwater falls below levels in the Thames, saline river water will enter the chalk aquifer.

Answer 267

NW England Nearby settlements- Appleby and Carlisle Mouth is in the Solway Firth Source in Pennines

Answer 268

Petteril Irthing Caldew Eamont

Answer 269

Long and narrow

Answer 270

Upland= 2800mm annually Carlisle= 760mm annually Orographic rainfall.

Answer 271

Highest= igneous (impermeable) Lowest= limestone and sandstone (permeable)- easily saturated.

Answer 272

Lower and middle course

Answer 273

51.8 cumecs

Answer 274

Carboniferous limestone

Answer 275

St Bees Sandstone

Answer 276

The mountains of Skiddaw

Answer 277

Eden channel has a steep gradient upstream of Kirkby Stephen. Head of catchment is around 690m and Kirkby Stephen is around 160m. River Eden loses height around 1.8m per km to Appleby from Kirkby Stephen.

Answer 278

Thin soils and many tributaries have steep gradients.

Answer 279

Eurasian otters Antarctic salmon

Answer 280

Majority pastoral Upland areas sheep grazing 30% increase in cattle from 2000-2009 Intense farming has led to compact soils

Answer 281

Population 108,387 Largely rural New housing estates (The Ridings) meaning more impermeable surfaces Some developments on natural floodplains, causing flooding downstream.

Answer 282

Inglewood forest has been cut down Has happened for years for timber.

Answer 283

1771, 1856, 2005 and 2015.

Answer 284

0.6m Likely due to human factors.

Answer 285

1479 cumecs

Answer 286

Storm Desmond.

Answer 287

2128 properties flooded and over 5000 people ecavuated.

Answer 288

The Swifts golf course Cricket ground.

Answer 289

They had very little impact on helping.

Answer 290

5th, 6th and 7th December 2015

Answer 291

£9 million

Answer 292

'Extra tropical cyclone'- low pressure and warm moist air

Answer 293

Farming/deforestation Storms Construction

Answer 294

Transforms living carbon into inorganic carbon and back again.

Answer 295

Energy flows on Earth

Answer 296

Carbon dioxide- a gas found in the atmosphere, soils and oceans. Methane- a gas found in the atmosphere, soils, oceans and sedimentary rocks. Hydrocarbons- soilds, liquids or gases found in sedimentary rocks. Bio-molecules- complex carbon compounds produced in living organisms.

Answer 297

It has a profound effect on global climate. The difficulty in separating natural and human carbon cycles- with CO2, increased atmospheric levels can be directly attricuted to humans burning fossil fuels.

Answer 298

Gtc 1 billion tonnes

Answer 299

Gigaton of carbon per year GtC/years

Answer 300

Earth's interior It was stored in the mantle when the Earth formed. It escapes from the mantle at constructive and destructive plate boundaries as well as hot-spot volcanos.

Answer 301

The metamorphism of carbonate rocks subducting into the mantle.

Answer 302

Some remains as CO2 in the atmosphere Some is dissolved in oceans Some carbon is held as biomass in living or dead and decaying organisms Some is bound in carbonate rocks.

Answer 303

When it is buried by sedimentary rock layers. Apparent in- - Coal and black shales (which stores organic carbon from buried biomass) - Carbonate rocks such as limestone (made out of calcium carbonate-dead sea shells)

Answer 304

Marine sediments and sedimentary rocks- 100000- long term store with rocks taking millions of years to form. Ocean- 38000- CO2 is absorbed from air and river water discharges carbon carried in solution. Fossil fuel deposits- 4000- long term stores but since industrial revolution have been exploited for heat and power. Soil organic matter- 1500-carbon can remain in soils for years but soil erosion, deforestation and land use change can release this rapidly. Atmosphere- 750- amount have carbon has released in recent decades leading to the enhanced greenhouse effect and slimate change. Terrestrial plants- 560-store carbon and transfer it into the soil but this can be released rapidly through deforestation.

Answer 305

The crust and the uppermost mantle.

Answer 306

The uppermost layer (soil) which chemically reacts with the atmosohere, biosphere and hydrosphere.

Answer 307

Organically and inorganically.

Answer 308

100 million

Answer 309

900 GtC as the surface layer (euphotic zone) where sunlight allows for photosynthesis. 37100 GtC as the intermediate, longer term store (twilight zone), and deep layers of water. 30 GtC as living organic matter 700 GtC as dissolved organic matter.

Answer 310

When organisms die, their dead brain cells or parts sink into deep water. As they decay, CO2 is released into the water. Some material sinks to the very bottom to form carbon-rich sediments, which over millions of years turn into carbonate rocks. This process can lock up carbon in sedimentary layers for millions of years- estimates of which are as large as 100 million GtC.

Answer 311

The sum of all living matter (3,170 GtC)- although this can be separated into terrestrial and oceanic.

Answer 312

19% However, unlike oceans, much of the carbon is stored directly in the tissues of the plants. The root system is also important.

Answer 313

1/2 in high latitude forests. 1/3 in low latitude forests.

Answer 314

Vegetation type and location.

Answer 315

Fresh, undecomposed and easily recognised plant debris. The type of is litter affected by the type of ecosystem e.g. in young forests leaf tissues make up 70% and there is very little litter in grasslands.

Answer 316

Thick brown or black substance that remains after most of the organic litter has decomposed.

Answer 317

By soil organisms such as earthworms.

Answer 318

31% in biomass 69% in soil

Answer 319

Play a small role in terms of carbon storage but a huge role in terms of the movement of carbon through the carbon cycle.

Answer 320

Highest= Cambrian Lowest= Quarternary glacial period

Answer 321

Human activity

Answer 322

Mauna Loa Observatory on Hawaii since 1958. The undisturbed air, remote located and limited influence of vegetation and human activity makes it the ideal location.

Answer 323

2 ppm/year

Answer 324

A graph of the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory on the island of Hawaii from 1958 to the present day.

Answer 325

Partially decomposed plant material- means amount of CO2 released is low.

Answer 326

Carpet of peat that coveres the surface

Answer 327

Hunting season is popular Heather is burnt to keep plants short and suitable for nesting of grouse Dries out peat Damages environment.

Answer 328

Energy can be stores in the covalent bond due to the oscillatory nature.

Answer 329

When more carbon enters a store than leaves it.

Answer 330

When more carbon leaves a store than enters it.

Answer 331

Where it interacts with the rock cycle in the processes of weathering, burial, subduction and volcanic eruptions.

Answer 332

When CO2 dissolves in water.

Answer 333

As it reaches the surface as rain, it reacts with mineral at the Earth's surface, slowly dissolving them into their component ions through the process of chemical weathering. The dissolved ions are carried in surface waters to the ocean where they settle out as minerals such as calcite.

Answer 334

Calcium carbonate is precipitated from calcium and bicarbonate ions in the seawater by marine organisms such as coccoliths. When these creatures die, their skeletons sink to the bottom of the oceans and collect as sediment. Burial by overlaying layers of sediment turns the sedminents into sedimentary limestone.

Answer 335

Can push carbonaceous seafloor deposits deep into the Earth by the process of subduction. Here, they heat up and eventually melt, rising and returning to the atmosphere through either volcanic eruptions or seeps, vents and CO2 rich hot springs. This is a long term store.

Answer 336

Co2 + H2O + Sunlight -> CH2O + O2

Answer 337

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Answer 338

No as not all organic matter is oxidised. More oxygen has been put into the atmosphere from photosyntheiss than CO2 from respiration.

Answer 339

Physical, chemical and biological mechanisms that transform organic matter into increasingly stable forms.

Answer 340

Decomposers- their role is to firstly break down the cells and tissues in dead organissm into large biomolecules. They then break those biomolecules into smaller molecules and individual atoms.

Answer 341

That the important elements of life (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and magnesium) can be continually recycled into the soil and made available for life.

Answer 342

The concept of vertical deep mixing where carbon dioxide is transported from the ocean surface to the ocean depths by sinking cold water in the high latitudes. If brought to the surface (for instance by upwelling) the cold water will warm up and release some of its carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

Answer 343

When any organic material is reacted (burned) in the presence of oxygen to give off CO2, water and energy. The organic material can be any vegetation or fossil fuel. Any other elements present combine with oxygen to form a variety of pollutant molecules.

Answer 344

The burning of living and dead vegetation; whether by human-induced burning or naturally occuring fires (wildfires).

Answer 345

The boreal forests of Alaska, Canada, Russia, China and Scandinavia. Savannah grasslands in Africa. Tropical rainforests in Brazil and Indonesia. Temperate forests and agricultural waste after harvests in the US and Western Europe.

Answer 346

Trees die after sever fire, setting the stage for new growth to begin. If a forest fully replaces itself there will be no net carbon change over that life cycle.

Answer 347

10-20% and is immediately emmitted into the atmosphere.

Answer 348

New trees grow (storing carbon), old trees decompose (emmitting carbon) and the organic layer of the soil accumulates (storing carbon) The balance between simultaneous production and dcomposition.

Answer 349

3-4 million km2. Releases more than a billion tonnes of carbon into the atmosphere as CO2.

Answer 350

Massive old-growth northern latitude forests are considered a carbon sink as older trees are repositories of decades of centuries of carbon; their heavy canopy blocks sunlight from reaching the forest dlow, slowing decomposition of forest litter.

Answer 351

Fossil fuel combustion Hydrocarbon extraction and burning Farming practices Deforestation Urban growth Carbon sequestration

Answer 352

Rocks that are 11-70 million years old. Carbon has remained locked up in these deposits for all that time, but when burnt to release energy, the store carbon is released into the atmosphere.

Answer 353

Carbon dioxide and water vapour into the atmosphere

Answer 354

Following burial

Answer 355

Silica fume Burj Khalifa

Answer 356

Petroleum (crude oil)

Answer 357

Coal and natural gas

Answer 358

Water and CO2 are released into the atmosphere

Answer 359

The pressure from multiple layers of sediment leads to an anoxic environment that allows for decomposition to take place without oxygen. When this is combined with heat from the Earth, the Carbon in sugar molecules is rearranged to form other compounds. The type of material that is buried helps to determine what the final product will be.

Answer 360

It involves the heating of calcium carbonate (limestone), producing lime and carbon dioxide as by-products. CO2 is also produced by the burning of fossil fuels that provide the heat needed for the cement making process.

Answer 361

China (28%) USA (14%) India (7%) Two of these countries can be classified as developing nations which may provide an explanation.

Answer 362

When soil is ploughed, the soil layers invert with each other. Soil microbial activity dramatically increases due to this, resulting in more soil organic matter being decomposed. As a result, more carbon is lost to the atmosphere, along with CO2 produced by the farm tractors doing the ploughing in the first place.

Answer 363

Enteric fermentation.

Answer 364

More than 3 million hectares.

Answer 365

13 million

Answer 366

The need for extra agricultural land. This is normally carried out by subsistance farmers who take part in slash and burn.

Answer 367

Logging Urban sprawl

Answer 368

Yes, for example wildfires.

Answer 369

7.3 million hectares per year between 2000 and 2005.

Answer 370

When forests are clearned, a large proportion of above-ground biomass may be burned (quickly releasing CO2). Some of the wood may be used as wood products (so preserved longer). Forest clearing also accelerates the decay of dead wood, litter and below-ground organic carbon.

Answer 371

Up to 20 billion tons of water

Answer 372

Forest soils are moist, however without shade from tree cover they soon dry out. Trees can also help maintain the water cycle by returning vapour back to the atmosphere through transpiration.

Answer 373

1.3 million

Answer 374

Capturing CO2 from the atmosphere and putting it into long-term storage.

Answer 375

Geologic sequestration Terrestrial/biological sequestration

Answer 376

It 'sinks' to great depths within weeks or months of being captured at the surface. Once in the deep ocean it is in a circulatory system measured in thousands of years. It it reaches the sea bed, it enters the Earth's geological cycle, which can be measured in millions of years.

Answer 377

CO2 is captured at its source (e.g. power plants) and injected as a liquid deep underground in a variety of stores (depleted oil/gas resevoirs, uneconomic coal seams, underground salt formations or the deep ocean).

Answer 378

This involves the use of plants to capture CO2 from the atmosphere. Carbon is then stored in the stems and roots of the plants (as well as in the soil). There is also the added benefit of the enrichment of plant ecosystems and associated wildlife habitats.

Answer 379

Plantations are slow growing and require monitoring which lasts the lifetime of the plantation. The carbon within such systems is never permanently removed from the atmosphere. A forest planted to capture carbon may lose carbon back to air through forest fires or the forest suffering disease/infestation.

Answer 380

The flow that would exist in the stream without the contribution of direct runoff from the rainfall.

Answer 381

Yes. Groundwater flow is a flow/transfer.

Answer 382

The balance between the inputs and outputs in the drainage basin.

Answer 383

Precipitation

Answer 384

Glacial periods over geological time

Answer 385

Volcanic activity Natural climate change Wildfires Milankovitch cycles

Answer 386

- The warming effect of CO2 is counterbalanced by the large amount of sulphur dioxide that is given out. - The amount of CO2 released has not been enough to produce detecable global warming.

Answer 387

Yes, in deep geologic past some increased temperatures so much some mass extinctions possibly occurred.

Answer 388

Tambora, Indonesia (1815)- reduced temperatures

Answer 389

- Chemical weathering processes would have been more active as cold water can hold more CO2. - Forest coverage would be different. - Decomposers would have been less effective. - Less water would have flowed to the oceans. - The soil would have become frozen over wider areas of land, stopping transfers of carbon to/from the atmosphere.

Answer 390

The melting of permafrost in tundra regions (Siberia) has slowly increased release of methane into the atmosphere. Enhancing the greenhouse effect through positive feedback.

Answer 391

By lightning strikes or by people.

Answer 392

1997-8 and 2013 Indonesia wildfires.

Answer 393

Milankovitch cycles

Answer 394

Eccentricity- 100000 years Obliquity- 41000 years Precession of the Equinoxes- 19000 and 23000 years

Answer 395

The cycles cause slight variations in the amount of the sun's radiation that warms up the Earth. As temperatures start to rise at the end of glacial period (caused by orbital change), there is a huge surge of CO2 released into the atmosphere by the warming of oceans and thawing of the land surface.

Answer 396

- Triggered the warming of the Arctic 19000 years ago, tiggering ice melt which flooded the oceans with freshwater. - The influx of fresh water disrupted ocean current circulation, warming up the southern hemisphere. - As the Southern Ocean warmed, the solubility of carbon dioxide in the water fell. - CO2 was released into the atmosphere at a faster rate.

Answer 397

The carbon budget uses data to describe the amount of carbon that is transfered and stored withtin the carbon cycle.

Answer 398

Earth's crust and in the oceans.

Answer 399

- Development of soil - Plant growth and food production - Fodder for animals - Source of energy

Answer 400

- Converted into calcium carbonate - Proliferation of phytoplankton (phytoplankton consume carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, which is then passed along the food change).

Answer 401

- Helps warm the earth through the greenhouse effect.

Answer 402

- Vegetation plays a pivotal role- e.g. tropical rainforests have high rates of photosynthesis and respiration which increases humidity and cloud cover which reduces temperatures (positive feedback) - Proliferation of plankton in oceans may promote the formation of clouds through the creation of a chemical called dimethylsulfide. - Volcanic eruptions release CO2 and ash into the atmosphere. These can absorb incoming radiation, cooling the Earth in a process known as volcanic winter (negative feedback).

Answer 403

Computer models

Answer 404

More CO2 available in atmosphere results in more photosynthesis and plant growth. This is called carbon fertilisation. Growth limits reached when available water and nutrient limits are reached.

Answer 405

More wildfires are being extinguished. Leads to build up of woody material that stores carbon. Fires and deforestation elsewhere has led to increased atmospheric CO2.

Answer 406

0.7 degrees c

Answer 407

Complex nature of the chemistry and biochemistry of the oceans and their inhabitants.

Answer 408

Coral relies on carbonate to create their calcium carbonate shells. Carbonic acid reacts with carbonate ions in the water to form bicarbonate- this means the shells become thinner and more fragile. Reef loss can have a negative impact on coastal communities as reduced food availability and capacity of reefs to slow impact of sea level rise.

Answer 409

Farmed oyster larva off the coast of Oregon and Washington died by the millions. This cost the industry millions of dollars in lost sales.

Answer 410

Reduce the number of phytoplankton found in surface waters.

Answer 411

It could kill off symbiotic algae. Corals need these in order to grow. Corals become bleached as a result and eventually die.

Answer 412

Algae that appear in more concentrated forms with more fat content in the ice.

Answer 413

Polar bears rely on sea ice as a means of transportation when hunting.

Answer 414

Higher levels of precipitation (causing decreased runoff) Higher temperatures (leading to melting of Greenland ice sheet)

Answer 415

Slowed large-scale circulation in the North East Atlantic. Northern Europe most impacted. Dimishing the impact of the North Atlantic Drift. Leads to colder and harsher winters (particulary in coastal location).

Answer 416

Thermal expansion and melting of terrestrial ice.

Answer 417

Higher temperatures led to an increased rate of summer melting and shorter winters. This resulted in a net gain of water entering the oceans from rivers. Couples with the more rapid movement of the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets towards the oceans, the signs are that sea levels will continue to rise.

Answer 418

When water heats up it exapnds. Around 50% of the past century's rise in sea level is thought to be due to warmer oceans occupying more space due to their increased volume.

Answer 419

Increased greenhouse gas emissions Changing albedo because of land use changes

Answer 420

The net balance between ultraviolet radiation becoming into the Earth's atmosphere and the amount of ultraviolet radiation leaving the Earth's atmosphere.

Answer 421

1.6 watts/m2.

Answer 422

5.6 (mildly acidic)

Answer 423

The presence of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitric acid in the troposphere.

Answer 424

Weathers carbonate rocks. It converts calcium carbonate into soluble calcium bicarbonate upon contact. The dissolved carbon is carried away by rivers to oceans where it is used to grow shells.

Answer 425

Controls the amount of vapour in the atmosphere and therefore the size of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Answer 426

Yes as the ocean soaks up heat. Slows atmospheric warming by around 0.6 degrees c.

Answer 427

Warmer tempratures in the Arctic mean that the growing season has extended, increasing the absobtion of carbon from the atmosphere. Permafrost in Siberia is starting to melt and plant roots and animals trapped in the frozen ground start to decompose as oxygen is introduced. The bacteria involved in this produces CO2 and methane which escape to the atmosphere.

Answer 428

Phytoplankton use solar energy and dissolved CO2 to photosynthesise, live and grow. They also release DMS which promotes the formation of clouds over the oceans. Warmer ocean temperatures are increasing phytoplankton numbers which could increase cloudiness and cause cooling. This could eventually reduce phytoplankton numbers if cooling is significant enough.

Answer 429

Increased use of renewable energy. Urban design. Government policy. Changing rural land use Improving the aviation industry.

Answer 430

Carbon Capture and sequestration

Answer 431

It is a technology that can capture up to 90% of CO2 emissions produced from the use of fossil fuels in electricity generation and industrial processes.

Answer 432

1. Capturing the CO2 and separating it from other gases. 2. Transporting the CO2 by pipeline or ship to the storage location. 3. Securely storing the CO2 underground.

Answer 433

A high-pressure runny liquid known as 'supercritical CO2'

Answer 434

The 110-megawatt coal power and CCS plant in Saskatchewan, Canada called Boundary Dam.

Answer 435

Consumers are encouraged to buy wood certified by the FSC- sustainably grown timber products. Countries and organisations make carbon offset payments to offset their carbon emissions. Selective Management System- only selected trees are felled and replacements are planted soon after.

Answer 436

Paris 2015 agreement Brazilian government Sri Lanka

Answer 437

195 countries signed a global climate deal (different for each country and not legally binding however). It proposed- - To meet every 5 years - That developed nations support developing nations - To limit global temperature increases to 1.5 degrees c above pre-1750 levels.

Answer 438

Cut deforestation rates by 80% So far they are down 70% and Brazil has reduced its carbon emissions more than any other country.

Answer 439

To rpotect all its mangrove forests. It would cost £2.2 million and will protect 21,000 acres of mangrove forest.

Answer 440

Avoid overstocking of grazing animals Revegetation Irrigation and water management

Answer 441

Mulching Reduced or no tillage Use of animal manure of chemical fertilisers Rotation of cash crops Using improved crop varieties

Answer 442

Management of an area of forest

Answer 443

Protecting existing forests. Reforesting degraded land. Trees in croplands and orchards can store carbon above and below ground.

Answer 444

705 million tonnes.

Answer 445

Airbus A380 and Boeing 787.

Answer 446

Movement management Flight management Design and technology.

Answer 447

In a broad best across equatorial South America, central Africa, south-east Asia and northern Australia.

Answer 448

27+ degrees c

Answer 449

200 million

Answer 450

Around half

Answer 451

High humidity and unstable weather conditions, for example torrential convectional rainstorms most afternoons.

Answer 452

25% The rest travels to the ground via stemflow. Half of this water is used by plants and eventually evapotranspirates. The other half infiltrates the soil or flow overland to the river.

Answer 453

To make way for plantations and cattle ranching.

Answer 454

Around 50%

Answer 455

Atmosphere becomes less humid Soil will become very dry and erode Increased runoff Very little interception and evaporation so no transpiration Rainfall will hit the ground, compacting it and encouraging overland flow.

Answer 456

Between 20 and 60%

Answer 457

Reduce evaporation rates Reduced humidity Reduced rainfall

Answer 458

50%- this means that it is a carbon store.

Answer 459

Wet and warm conditions

Answer 460

Soil or can be removed by streams.

Answer 461

Interruption of photosynthesis until new plants colonise Plant and animal respiration drops to almost zero Rain washes ash into the ground, increasing the carbon content of the soil. Decomposers will largely be absent from the environment.

Answer 462

A method of deforestation. Cheap and effective. Fires can often burn out of control however.

Answer 463

Blackened stumps and a blackened surface.

Answer 464

When burnt carbon stored in the tree is released into the atmosphere. The only carbon left would be the burnt debris.

Answer 465

Selective logging and replanting regulations ensure a sustainable future for the carbon cycle there.

Answer 466

Reintroduces stores and flows, however at much less effective levels.

Answer 467

27 degrees c

Answer 468

Amazon rainforest is a huge carbon sink. High temperatures mean there are high rates of evapotranspiration which releases water vapour back into the atmosphere. Less water will reach the river amazon due to high levels of interception and evapotranspiration, only around 30%.

Answer 469

Mainly impermeable with large areas of crystalline rocks (mainly metamorphic and igneous). Some areas of porous sandstone. Not a lot of exposed rocks. There are some outcrops of limestone in the amazonian Andes.

Answer 470

Small amount of groundwater stores but when they are present there is slow runoff as water percolates. Some areas have rapid runoff when rain reaches the rainforest floor due to the impermeable nature of the rock type. Hard crystalline rock type is difficult to erode so less sediment and fertile soil. Bedrock is a store of carbon but due to low levels of erosion, results in very little transfers. The limestone outcrops may undergo chemical weathering transferring carbon from the rock to the soil.

Answer 471

Close to the Andes mountain range Most of the basin is in flat lowlands

Answer 472

Steep relief causes quicker runoff and a reduced lag time due to gravity Water moves slower over flatter land.

Answer 473

400 billion trees belonging to 16000 different species make up the rainforest- e.g. Barrigona and huacrapona tree. 3-4 layers of vegetation. Moist forests are usually evergreen.

Answer 474

As trees grow larger, they develop more biomass, which contains carbon. So the larger the tree, the greater quantity of carbon locked within its wood. As trees are long-lived organisms, this means the carbon is removed from the atmosphere for decades, if not centuries.

Answer 475

Not a lot as high temperatures and humid conditions promote rapid decomposition of organic litter by bacteria, fungi and other soil organisms. Total litter is estimated to be partitioned into 16% fine wood, 30% coarse wood and 54% non-woody litter.

Answer 476

Decomposition releases nutrients to the soil for immediate take-up by tree root systems, and emits co2 which is returned to the atmosphere. Soil carbon store is small as carbon is quickly recycled.

Answer 477

Roads. HEP schemes- Tucurui dam completed in 1984 which ended up flooding 2250 km2 of forest. Mining. Slash and burn. Cattle ranching. Soybean. Transmigration.

Answer 478

The Amazon

Answer 479

300 billion

Answer 480

Yes during ice ages but it has also advanced during warm periods.

Answer 481

80-120 billion tons

Answer 482

The sequestering of increased CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere.

Answer 483

Growing fast but also dying fast.

Answer 484

175000 m3/s (15% of the world's fresh water entering the oceans each day).

Answer 485

100m deep and 14km wide near its mouth

Answer 486

2300mm but can exceed 6000mm in some areas in the northwest.

Answer 487

Up to half as it is intercepted by the forest canopy and re-evaporated into the atmosphere.

Answer 488

48% 30% reaches the sea

Answer 489

19.368 km2 per year.

Answer 490

75% 59% of this is from the Amazon.

Answer 491

Reduced soil porosity- causes fast drainage and erosion Increased albedo and temperature Causes sudden evaporation of water previously held in forest canopy. Reduces the retention of humidity in the soil's top layer.

Answer 492

Salts and organic fibres along with water when they transpire. These act as condensation nuclei.

Answer 493

8.9 degrees c

Answer 494

Between the 1920s and 1970s. No.

Answer 495

0.26 degrees c every 10 years

Answer 496

3.6 million per year. Deforestation and climate change.

Answer 497

They may not be able to tolerate the conditions.

Answer 498

Droughts and unusually high temperatures.

Answer 499

20-40% of the Amazon would die off within 100 years.

Answer 500

75% would be destroyed by drought within 100 years.

Answer 501

85% of the rainforest killed.

Answer 502

Soils become exposed to heavy rainfall. This washes away the topsoil and attacks the deep weathered layer below. Most of the soil is washed into the rivers before the forest clearance have caused a reduction in rainfall. Soil fungi and bacteria that are used to recycle the dead vegetation die off.

Answer 503

An overall reduction in river discharge An increase in silt washed into rivers, disrupting transport routes Flash flooding Destroyed freshwater ecosystems- removing a source of protein and income to locals. Destroyed water supply which fulfils the needs of Amazonian people.

Answer 504

Kill off temperature dependent species Change the biodiversity of the river system by introducing new species and killing others Reducing water-dissolved oxygen concentrations, which could destroy eggs and larvae (which rely on dissolved oxygen for survival).

Answer 505

It is located in the continent of South America and in 9 different countries including Peru and Ecuador. 60% is located in Brazil.

Answer 506

Deforestation causes the removal of trees through human activity. This results in less interception and then the rainfall compresses the surface below which increases surface runoff. This water flows into rivers which results in less evaporation and evapotranspiration. Eventually, this causes less rainfall.

Answer 507

Deforestation techniques such as slash and burn release carbon- apart from the remaining burnt debris, the carbon is released into the atmosphere. This turns the Amazon into a carbon source instead of a carbon sink.

Answer 508

In 2003, the environmental secretary of Brazil (Marina Silva) walked with president Lula Da Silva to prevent deforestation. They ensured that in 2012, 47% of the rainforest was protected. 20% of the unprotected land was under the forest code meaning it was monitored by police and military. In 2006, deforestation fell by around 60%.

Answer 509

The trans amazaonian highway was free land offered by the government in the 1970s. Lots of this was pastureland.

Answer 510

Around 17%

Answer 511

It was signed by many large companies. This stated that they must refuse to buy produce from newly deforested land.

Answer 512

61% in Brazil portion