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A Level Geography > Hazards > Flashcards

Hazards Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two main classifications of hazards?

A

Hydrometerological
Geophysical

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2
Q

Name an example of a hurricane.

A

Hurricane Katrina 2005

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3
Q

What is an example of a flood?

A

Carlisle 2015

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4
Q

Name an example of a drought.

A

Ethiopia 1984

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5
Q

What is an example of an earthquake?

A

Haiti 2010

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6
Q

Name an example of a avalanche.

A

Salang Pass 2010

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7
Q

What is an example of a volcano?

A

Montserrat 1997

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8
Q

What is a hazard?

A

A ​hazard is a potential threat to ​human life ​and ​property caused by an event. Hazards can be human caused or occur naturally (natural hazards).

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9
Q

What is a natural hazard?

A

A hazard in thr physical environment.

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10
Q

What is a disaster?

A

When a hazard actually seriously affects humans.

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11
Q

What does the CRED classify as a disaster?

A

Killed 10 or more people
Affected at least 100 people - for drought or famine at least 2000 people have to be affected.

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12
Q

What does Swiss RE define as a disaster?

A

At least 20 people killed
Insured damage of at least $16.2 million

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13
Q

Name five examples of geophysical hazards.

A

Earthquakes
Volcanoes
Landslides
Debris avalanches
Subsidence

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14
Q

Name five examples of atmospheric hazards.

A

Hurricanes
Lightning
Tornadoes
Tropical storms
Hail storms

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15
Q

Name five examples of hydrological hazards.

A

Coastal flooding
Desertification
Drought
Salinisation
Storm surges

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16
Q

What is fatalism?

A

A view of a hazard event that suggests that people cannot infleunce or shape the outcome, therefore nothing can be done to mitigate against it.
People with such an attitude put in place limited or no preventative measures.
Losses are accepted as inevitable and people remain.
In some parts of the world the outcome of a hazard event can be said to be ‘gods will’.

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17
Q

What is adaptation?

A

The attempts by people or communities to live with hazard event.
By adjusting their living conditions, people are able to reduce ther levels of vulnerability.
For example they may avoid building on sites that are vulnerable to storm surges but stay within the same area.
Prediction/prevention/protection depending on economic and technological circumstances of the area.

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18
Q

What is fear?

A

The perception of the hazard is such that people feel so vulnerable to an event that they are no longer able to face living in the area and move away to regions perceived to be unaffected by the hazard.

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19
Q

What is a risk?

A

The likelihood that humans will be seriously affected by a hazard.

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20
Q

What is vulnerability?

A

How susceptible a population is to the damage caused by a hazard.

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21
Q

Name 5 things which could affect someones perception of a hazard.

A

Wealth
Religion
Education
Past Experiences
Personality

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22
Q

What could affect how successful a response to a hazard is?

A

Incidence- how often it occurs
Magnitude- how powerful it is
Distribution- areal extent of the hazard
Intensity
Level of development

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23
Q

What does the park model show?

A

The different phases of response to a hazard.

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24
Q

What are the five stages of the park model?

A

Pre-disaster
Disruption
Relief- rescue
Rehabilitation- aid
Reconstruction

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25
Q

What may the park model help planners with?

A

Predicting what resources will be needed at each stage.

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26
Q

What does the hazard management cycle show?

A

The stages that authorities go through to manage hazards.

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27
Q

What are the four stages of the hazard management cycle?

A

Mitigation
Preparedness
Response
Recovery

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28
Q

What are wildfires?

A

Uncontrolled fires that destroy forests, grassland and other areas of vegetation.

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29
Q

What are the three types of wildfires?

A

Ground fire
Surface fire
Crown fire

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30
Q

What is ground fire?

A

Where the ground itself burns.
It is a slow, smouldering fire with no flame and little smoke

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31
Q

What is surface fire?

A

Where leaf litter and low-lying vegetation burn.
Fire can be low or high density.

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32
Q

What is crown fire?

A

Where fire moves rapidly through the canopy.
Fires are likely to be intense and fast-moving.

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33
Q

How does vegetation type influence wildfires?

A

Thick undergrowth or closely spaced trees allow fire to travel easily.
Some trees such as pine and eucalyptus contain a lot of oil and so burn very easily.
Eucalyptus trees shed strips of their bark which helps the fair spread quickly.

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34
Q

How do fuel characteristics influence wildfires?

A

Fine, dry material catch fire and burn most easily.
Large amounts of fuel that form a continuous cover will help the fire burn for longer and spread.

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35
Q

How does climate influence wildfires?

A

Rainfall must be sufficient enough for vegetation to grow, so there is fuel.
The area usually has a distinct dry season when rainfall is low for a significant time.
Warm, dry weather causes water in the vegetation to dry up, so its more flammable.
Strong winds provide more oxygen to help the fire burn and spread burning embers.

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36
Q

How does fire behaviour influence wildfires?

A

Fire burns in different ways, for example a creeping fire moves across ground surface fairly slowly, whereas a running fire spreads rapidly and is more intense.
Fires can throw out burning debris (firebrands) that help the fire spread and become more intense.

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37
Q

What does a fire need to start?

A

Fuel
Heat
Oxygen

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38
Q

What are some natural causes of wildfires?

A

Hot lightning
Volcanic eruptions

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39
Q

What are some human causes of wildfires?

A

Dropping cigarettes
Campfires
Fireworks
Sparks from machinery
Arson

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40
Q

What are social impacts of wildifres?

A

People may be killed or destroyed.
Homes are destroyed, so may be left homeless.
Can destroy power lines and damage reservoirs, leaving people without electricity or clean water.
Can cause health problems such as inhaling smoke can cause long term breathing difficulties.

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41
Q

What are economic impacts of wildfires?

A

Can destroy businesses, leading to a loss of jobs and income.
Insurance premiums increase dramatically after a wildfire.
Cost of fighting wildfires is large.
May discourage tourists from visiting an area, reducing income.

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42
Q

What are political impacts of wildfires?

A

Governments can face criticism when wildfires have severe impacts.
Governments may have to change their forest management practices to reduce the risk of wildfire, e.g. by clearing vegetation to limit fuel.

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43
Q

What are environmental impacts of wildfires?

A

Habitats are destroyed and some species may not return to the area after a fire, changing the ecosystem.
Soils are damaged as the fire removes organic matter.
Smoke causes air pollution, and water sources can be contaminated with ash.
Some ecosystems rely on wildfires to clear dead vegetation, and some plant seeds need fire to germinate for examples pine and sequoias.

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44
Q

Name some mitigation strategies for wildfires.

A
  • Thinning fuels or prescribing small fires to reduce wildfire intensity and decrease the likelihood of crown fires. This activity tries to restore forests and landscapes to a healthier state, and restore the natural fire cycle.
  • Creating fire breaks (roads or other non-vegetated areas) to reduce fire spread, and aid in fire fighting activities e.g. in Brendan T. Byrne State Forest in New Jersey
  • Creating defensible space around homes in the urban-wildland interface
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45
Q

Name preparation strategies for wildfires.

A
  • Allianz insurance encourages people in Australia to prepare their home by doing things such as regularly clearing vegetation, or moving flammable items if it is likely a fire could occur.
  • They encourage everyone to have a plan and inform family members of said plan, this could include evacuation
  • The Victoria state government has an educational series targeted at informing people about wildfires
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46
Q

Name strategies to prevent a wildfire.

A
  • If you come into contact with an out of control fire or unattended fire. If a fire is caused by machinery, in wildland areas, spark preventers are legally required and can be used to extinguish small fires.
  • To reduce the chance of a wildfire starting from a controlled fire, the fire should be completely extinguished before leaving. Fires should not exceed 4 feet in diameter so the fire is easily extinguishable.
  • To prevent the destruction of property, all combustibles should be removed from around houses, windows closed to reduce drafts and large vessels such as swimming pools filled with water to slow fire.
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47
Q

What is Smokey Bear?

A

Smokey Bear is a 70
year-old U.S. mascot used to provide information on preventing wildfires, with
the intention of becoming a well-known figure so that people would recognise the
risks.

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48
Q

Name an example where the extinguishing of wildfires has done more harm than good.

A

Jasper, Alberta.
Threatening wildfires have been frequently extinguished in the past, meaning the forest has become thick and deprived of light.
This has then prevented the growth of silver birch and other trees, and the forest is now mostly pine.
Due to no fires eradicating diseases or harmful insects, the Mountain Pine Beetle has taken over the forest, which has severely affected the ecosystem and caused many trees to die. Eventually, the species will cause the forest to be destroyed and then naturally regrow, which would have happened by natural wildfires anyway.

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49
Q

What is the risk hazard equation?

A

(hazard x vulnerability) / capacity to cope = risk

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50
Q

What is the ladder effect?

A

The process of fires from the forest floor spreading to the tree canopy.

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51
Q

How are wildfires linked with El Nino?

A

Occurs around equatorial Pacific hen ocean temperatures reach at least 0.5 degrees celcius above average.
The most recent largest El Nino was 2015/16.
It led to reduced rainfall in Australia, Indonesia and northern South America, making the area more vulnerable to wildfires.

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52
Q

How many wildfires are caused by humans?

A

90%

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53
Q

Name 8 techniques to tackle wildfires.

A
  • Using aeroplanes and helicopters to air drop water and fire-retardant chemicals.
  • Wildfire fire engines
  • Smokejumpers
  • Control lines
  • Backfiring
  • Mandatory evacuations
  • Volunteer groups
  • GIS
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54
Q

When was the California ‘Camp Fire’?

A

2018

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55
Q

Where was the Camp Fire?

A

Paradise, California

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56
Q

What were causes of the Camp Fire?

A

Strong winds
Mediterranean climate
Timbered forest

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57
Q

How many died in the 2018 Camp Fire?

A

85

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58
Q

What was the short term human response of the 2008 wildfire?

A

Evacuated people into specific zones, there are 14 in Paradise.
Focused on communication.
Spontaneous shelters for organisations such as churches and businesses.

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59
Q

What were more long term responses to the 2008 Camp Fire?
Note: These led to changes for the 2018 Camp Fire.

A

Improved communication and is now web based.
Created a register of people who need special help evacuating- these people needed to register online.
Could have a no notice event and struggle to evacuate all the people with enough time, this nearly occurred in 2018.

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60
Q

What were primary impacts of the 2018 Camp Fire?

A

No wifi and very little phone signal.
1000s of houses and businesses and destroyed.
40,000 acres burnt in 6-8 hours.
50,000 evacuated.
15 days to extinguish.

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61
Q

What were the secondary impacts of the 2018 Camp Fire?

A

loss of jobs
loss of income
homelessness
costly repairs
cost of insurance claims
restriction to recreational areas
damage to tourism industries
soil erosion
landslides
pollution

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62
Q

Who came up with the idea of Pangea and when?

A

Alfred Wegner 1912

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63
Q

When Pangea split what were the two continents called?

A

Gondwanaland and Laurasia

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63
Q

When Pangea split what were the two continents called?

A

Gondwanaland and Laurasia

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64
Q

What is geological evidence of Pangea?

A

Jigsaw fit of countries.
Lithology and striations - glacial scratched aligned in Southern America and Southern Africa.

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65
Q

What is biological evidence of Pangea?

A

Fossil evidence Mesosaurus.
Himalayans and marine fossils.

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66
Q

What is later evidence of Pangea?

A

Geophysics
- ocean floor mapping
- palaeomagnetism.

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67
Q

What is the theory of palaeomagnetism?

A

Polarity of the rock either side of the mid-Atlantic ridge alternates in a striped pattern.
Oceanic crust was slowly moving away from the plate boundary.
Oceanic crust got older with distance from the mid-Atlantic ridge.

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68
Q

What did Vine and Matthews find in terms of plate tectonics?

A

Scientific test of sea floor spreading.
1963 ‘Magnetic anomalies over oceanic ridges’.

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69
Q

What did John Tuzo-Wilson find in terms of plate tectonics?

A

Fixed ‘hotspots’ in mantle may form volcanic island chains and plates may move over hotspots.
Discovered conservative late boundaries.

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70
Q

What did Dan McKenzie find in terms of plate tectonics?

A

Convention currents.
‘The Viscosity of the Lower Mantle’ (1996).

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71
Q

What did Harry Hess find in terms of plate tectonics?

A

‘The History of Ocean Basins’ (1962).
Sea floor spreading and mid oceanic ridges.

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72
Q

Where do convection currents occur?

A

Mantle

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73
Q

What is ridge push?

A

When convection currents causes plates to move apart.
Constructive plate boundaries.

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74
Q

What is slab pull?

A

Occurs at subduction zone destructive plate boundaries.
Continental plate subducts oceanic plate.
Each plate moves at its own rate.

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75
Q

What are the characteristics of oceanic plate boundaries?

A

Thin (5-8km)
Darker in appearance
Basalt most common
Denser
Basic composition
Sima
Oldest- 180 mil years
Low silica content

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76
Q

What are the characteristics of continental plate boundaries?

A

Thick- especially fold mountains
Lighter in appearance
Granite most common
Less dense
Acidic composition
Siol
Oldest- 3 billion + years
High silica content

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77
Q

What happens at constructive plate boundaries?

A

Magma plumes in mantle upwelling of hot magma due to convection currents.
Ridge push.
Possible volcanos (shield) basic lava and low silica content, low viscosity and volatiles can escape and lava lows. easy to manage.

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78
Q

What is basalt?

A

Lava on surface.

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79
Q

What is an example of a constructive plate boundary?

A

Mid Atlantic Ridge
Iceland- Surtsey
NA and Eurasian plate boundary move apart.

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80
Q

What happens at conservative plate boundaries?

A

Earth is neither created nor destroyed.
Seismic activity such as earthquakes or tsunamis would occur.
They either move same or different direction however at different times.

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81
Q

What is an example of a conservative plate boundary?

A

San Andreas Fault
Pacific plate moves faster than the North American plate.

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82
Q

What are the two types of destructive plate boundary?

A

Collision zone
Subduction zone

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83
Q

What happens at a collision zone boundary?

A

Two continental plates will move together due to convection currents.
This causes seismic activity and subsequently fold mountain ranges to form.

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84
Q

What is an example of a collision zone?

A

Eurasian and Indo Australian plate and the Himalayas.

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85
Q

What is an example of a subduction zone?

A

Nazca plate (Oceanic) subducts the North Amercian plate (continental).
This caused the Peru-Chile deep sea trench, Andes fold mountains and seismic activity and volcanoes such as Mount Chimborazo.

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86
Q

What happens at the subduction zone?

A

Slab pull.
Continental subducts oceanic which can cause both shallow and deep focus earthquakes.
Forms and ocean trench which forms an accretionary wedge.
Magma chambers can also form in the continental crust which causes composite volcanoes to form.
Fold mountains will also occur at the continental crust.
Benioff zone.

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87
Q

What is the Benioff zone?

A

The area where friction is created between colliding tectonic plates, resulting in intermediate and deep earthquakes.

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88
Q

What causes island arcs to form?

A

Oceanic crust subducting oceanic crust.
An example of a chain of island arcs is the Philippines.

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89
Q

Name an example of a subduction zone.

A

Pacific ring of fire.

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90
Q

How many volcanoes in Pacific ring of fire?

A

452

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91
Q

Name an intra-plate are with volcanic activity.

A

Hawaii

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92
Q

What is a mid oceanic ridge?

A

Continuous submarine mountain ranges.
Extend approximate 50000 miles.

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93
Q

How do hotspots occur?

A
  • Radioactive decay within the earth’s core generates very hot temperatures.
  • If the decay is concentrated hot spots will form.
  • These hotspots heat the lower mantle creating localised thermal currents here magma plumes rise vertically.
  • These plumes occasionally rise within the centre of plates and ‘burn’ through the lithosphere to create volcanic activity on the surface.
  • As the hotspot remains stationary the movement of the overlying plate results in the formation of a chain of active and subsequently extinct volcanoes as the plate moves away from the hotspot.
94
Q

Name examples of three islands in Hawaii?

A

Maui
Molokai
Oahu

95
Q

Name three types of volcanic eruptions with basaltic magma.

A

Icelandic
Hawaiian
Strombolian.

96
Q

Name three types of volcanic eruptions with andesitic magma.

A

Vulcanian
Vesuvian
Pelean.

97
Q

What type of volcanic eruption has rhyolitic magma?

A

Plinian.

98
Q

What are the characteristics of icelandic eruptions?

A

Height is 1km or less
Mostly lava
Regular eruptions.

99
Q

What are the characteristics of hawaiian eruptions?

A

Calm eruption
Not much gas
Pahoeoe- ropey lava
Up to 1km
Shield volcanoes
Constructive plate boundaries.

100
Q

What are the characteristics of strombolian eruptions?

A

Small, frequent eruptions
Occasional short lava flows
Lots of stream and tephra
Volcanic bombs
Constructive plate boundaries.

101
Q

What are the characteristics of vulcanian eruptions?

A

Explosive eruptions
Lots of gas
Violent but not frequent
Volcanic bombs, ash and pyroclastic flow
Destructive plate boundaries.

102
Q

What are the characteristics of vesuvian eruptions?

A

Violent after inactive periods
Ash clouds
Frothy lava due to gas
Up to 15km.

103
Q

What are the characteristics of pelean eruptions?

A

Violent and pyroclastic flows
Bulges
Sporadic
Large amounts of gas, lava, dust and ash.

104
Q

What are the characteristics of plinian eruptions?

A

Violent erupions of gases, ash and pumice
Up to 17km
Bad weather may cause lahars
Heavy pumice fall and pyroclastic flows
Dissolved gases in magma chamber explode
Can last hours to days.

105
Q

What do seismometers indicate?

A

Microquakes indicate rising magma fracturing and cracking the overlying rocks.

106
Q

What do tiltometers indicate?

A

Bulging (inflation) of the ground is caused by rising magma. Both slope angles and the increasing distance between set points can be measured very accurately.

107
Q

What do magnetometers indicate?

A

Changing magnetism within the volcano is a common geophysical indication of rising magma.

108
Q

What do hydrological instrumentation indicate?

A

Rising magma will both heat groundwater and corrupt it with gas such as sulphur (increasing its acidity).

109
Q

What do remote-sensing equipment indicate?

A

Remote solar-powered digital camera surveillance is a particularly powerful and safe tool to record physical changes in and around the main crater. Thermal imaging and gas sampling of (poisonous) emissions such as chlorine can also be included in remote sensing.

110
Q

What does VEI stand for?

A

Volcanic explosivity index

111
Q

When was VEI established?

A

1999

112
Q

Name a VEI 7 volcano?

A

Tambora (1815)

113
Q

What would the VEI of yellowstone be if it exploded?

A

8

114
Q

What is the scale of VEI?

A

0-8
Logarithmic scale

115
Q

What earthquakes occur at constructive plate boundaries?

A

Shallow focus

116
Q

What earthquakes occur at destructive plate boundaries?

A

Deep focus

117
Q

How are earthquakes measured?

A

Seismograph

118
Q

What are earthquakes?

A

Movements in the Earth’s crust cause stress to build and when stress exceeds strength of the rock stored energy is released as an earthquake.
Seismic vibrations travel through earth.
Earthquake starts at the focus in crust and the epicentre is the point on the earth’s surface above the focus.

119
Q

What are P-waves?

A

Primary waves.
Arrive at detector first and are longitudinal and are the same direction of travel.

120
Q

What are S-waves?

A

Secondary waves
Arrive at the detector second, transverse so are at right angles to the direction of travel.

121
Q

What is liquefaction?

A

When violently shaken, soils with high water content lose their mechanical strength and start to behave like a fluid.

122
Q

What are primary impacts of earthquakes?

A

Ground shaking.
Ground rupture- risk for infrastructure such as dams and nuclear power stations.

123
Q

What are secondary impacts of earthquakes?

A

Tsunamis
Disease
Fires
Landslides and avalanches
Food shortages
Soil liquefaction

124
Q

Describe the Haiti earthquake.

A

January 12 2010
Shallow focus
7.0 Richter scale

125
Q

What is the poorest country in the western hemisphere?

A

Haiti

126
Q

What is the GDP per capita of Haiti?

A

1200 USD

127
Q

What is the capital city of Haiti?

A

Port-au-Prince

128
Q

What % of the population of Haiti is below the poverty line?

A

80%

129
Q

How many people were left homeless after the Haiti earthquake?

A

1.5 million

130
Q

How many died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

A

Reportedly 220000

131
Q

What was the reconstruction of Haiti like?

A

Plans to build it back better
Over 11 billion USD promised by international community.
Has failed.

132
Q

What was relief like in Haiti?

A

Slow intervention
First night no international aid and only one ambulance service running.
132 people rescued from rubble by UN peacekeepers.
Rescue effort lasted around 11 days.

133
Q

What was aid like in Haiti?

A

Many relocated to the Corail camp and many were unhappy.
Lack of drinking water as water delivered by American Red Cross had to be boiled.
Mercy Corps raised 45 million USD but only spent 1/3.
Poor reputation of NGOs.
Cholera outbreak due to Nepalese UN Peacekeepers - over 80 cases per day at one point.

134
Q

What is the Mercalli Scale?

A

A twelve-point scale for expressing the local intensity of an earthquake, ranging from I to XII.

The Mercalli scale is based on observable data, which can be arbitrary, whereas the magnitude scale is based on seismic recordings. The magnitude scale is therefore regarded as being more accurate and scientifically more objective.

135
Q

When is the Mercalli scale from?

A

19th century
Modern updated version called Modified Mercalli Scale.

136
Q

What are advantages of the Mercalli Scale?

A
  • Easy to use
  • Provides a comprehensive view
  • Based on observed effects
  • Aids in historical comparison
  • Useful for communication
137
Q

What are disadvantages of the Mercalli Scale?

A
  • Subjectivity
  • Limited precision
  • Regional differences
  • Historical dependence
  • Inadequate for large earthquakes
138
Q

Who designed the Richter Scale and when?

A

Charles Richter
1935

139
Q

How is the Richter Scale measured?

A

Using the logarithm of the maximum amplitude of the primary waves caused by the earthquake.
Amplitude is calculated using a calibrated seismograph.

140
Q

What are benefits of the Richter Scale?

A
  • Very accurate for any earthquake within 600 km of a seismometer.
  • Particularly good for earthquakes in the California region as this is where is was developed and where the seismometers were calibrated.
  • Able to give the energy released at the point of focus.
  • Give very accurate data readings for earthquakes upto magnitude 5 which consists of almost all the earthquakes that occur each year. Only between 100 - 150 magnitude 6 earthquakes a year.
  • Widely used and recognised.
141
Q

What are the limitations of the Richter Scale?

A
  • Does not reflect the impact of vertical movement, which can be the wave movement causing the greatest amount of damage.
  • Underestimates the energy released in earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 6, since the values calculated after measuring very large seismic waves tend to cluster, or saturate.
142
Q

What is the Moment Scale?

A

Determines the magnitude of an earthquake based on its seismic moment.

143
Q

When was the Moment Scale created and why?

A

Developed in 1979 by Thomas Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori.

Created following the 1960 Chilean Earthquake and 1964 Alaskan Earthquake.

144
Q

Are all three earthquake scales logarithmic?

A

Yes

145
Q

What are advantages of the Moment Scale?

A
  • Many scales like the Richter Scale are not entirely accurate.
  • Many media reports refer to the Richter scale when they are actually referring to the Moment Scale.
  • The Moment Scale gives the most accurate measurement of an earthquake by its size as it is most directly related to the energy released by the earthquake
  • It is the standard method used by seismological authorities such as the US Geological Survey for all earthquakes with a magnitude of over 3.5.
  • It is the only system capable of measuring the largest earthquakes given the amount of energy they release.
146
Q

What were the Richter and Moment scale results for the Northridge, California 1994 earthquake?

A

Richter- 6.4
Moment- 6.7

147
Q

What is an active volcano?

A

Erupted in living memory

148
Q

What is a dormant volcano?

A

Erupted withtin historical record

149
Q

What is a extinct volcano?

A

Will not erupt again

150
Q

What are characteristics of composite volcanoes?

A

Subduction zones- destructive
High viscocity and silica content
Violent and explosive eruptions
Steep slopes
Andesite
Hard to predict and mitigate
Lahaars
Mt Pinatubo, Philippines
Volcanic plugs which increase pressure of volatiles

151
Q

What are characteristics of shield volcanoes?

A

Mid ocean ridge
Mainly constructive plates or hotspots
Low silica content and viscocity
More gentle eruptions
Lava flows as pillow lava
Volatiles can escape easily
Basalt
Easy to predict and mitigate
Surtsey
Shallow shape and slope

152
Q

What are ash clouds?

A

Reach up to 14km into the stratosphere
Includes anything that is ejected out of the volcano

153
Q

What are lava flows?

A

Liquid or solidified lava which has erupted from a volcano

154
Q

What are mudflows?

A

A flowing mass of soft, wet, unconsolidated earth and fine-grained debris

155
Q

What are pyroclastic flows and ash fallout?

A

Avalanche and hot moving volcanic gases and rock that can travel up to 300 km/h

156
Q

What are gases/acid rain in relation to volcanoes?

A

Volcanoes erupt sulphurous gases which can result in acidic rainfall.

157
Q

What is tephra?

A

Rock fragments ejected during volcanic eruptions with varying size.

158
Q

Name a recent volcanic eruption.

A

Eyjafjallajökull

159
Q

How many times did Eyjafjallajökull erupt in 2010?

A

3 between March and May

160
Q

What type of volcano is Eyjafjallajökull?

A

Composite- 1.65km

161
Q

What VEI was Eyjafjallajökull?

A

3

162
Q

What were primary effects of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

As the result of the eruption, day turned to night, with the ash blocking out the sun.
Rescuers wore face masks to prevent them from choking on the clouds of ash.
Homes and roads were damaged and services disrupted, crops were destroyed by ash and roads washed away.
The ash cloud brought European airspace to a standstill during the latter half of April 2010 and cost billions of euros in delays.
During the eruption, a no-fly zone was imposed across much of Europe, that meant airlines were losing around £130m per day.
The price of shares in major airlines dropped between 2.5-3.3% during the eruption.
However, it should be noted that both imports and exports are being impacted across countries in Europe on the trade front, so the net trade position was not affected markedly overall

163
Q

What were secondary impacts of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

Sporting events were cancelled or affected due to cancelled flights (many teams pulled out of World Senior Curling Championship)
Fresh food imports stopped, and industries were affected by a lack of imported raw materials.
Local water supplies were contaminated with fluoride. Flooding was caused as the glacier melted.

164
Q

What were international impacts of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

The impact was felt as far afield as Kenya, where farmers have laid off 5000 workers after flowers and vegetables were left rotting at airports.
Kenya’s flower council says the country lost $1.3m a day in lost shipments to Europe.
Horticulture earned Kenya 71 billion shillings (£594m) in 2009 and is the country’s top foreign exchange earner.

165
Q

What were opportunities of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

According to the Environmental Transport Association, the grounding of European flights prevented some 2.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

As passengers looked for other ways to travel than flying, many different transport companies benefited. There was a considerable increase in passenger numbers on Eurostar. It saw a rise of nearly a third, with 50,000 extra passengers travelling on their trains.

Ash from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano deposited dissolved iron into the North Atlantic, triggering a plankton bloom, driving an increase in biological productivity.

Following the negative publicity of the eruption, the Icelandic government launched a campaign to promote tourism. Inspired by Iceland was established with the strategic intent of depicting the country’s beauty, the friendliness of its people and the fact that it was very much open for business. As a result, tourist numbers increased significantly following the campaign.

166
Q

What was done to reduce the impact of Eyjafjallajokull?

A

In the short term, the area around the volcano was evacuated.

European Red Cross Societies mobilised volunteers, staff and other resources to help people affected directly or indirectly by the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull glacier volcano. The European Red Cross provided food for the farming population living in the vicinity of the glacier, as well as counselling and psychosocial support, in particular for traumatised children. Some 700 people were evacuated from the disaster zone three times in the past month. In one instance, people had to flee their homes in the middle of the night to escape from flash floods.

The European Union has developed an integrated structure for air traffic management. As a result, nine Functional Airspace Blocks (FABs) will replace the existing 27 areas. This means following a volcanic eruption in the future, areas of air space may be closed, reducing the risk of closing all European air space.

167
Q

What plate magin was Eyjafjallajokull on?

A

Constructive

168
Q

How many roughtly evactuated due to Eyjafjallajokull?

A

1000

169
Q

What is the distribution of tropical storms?

A

Low latitudes- 5 to 20 degrees north or south
Move westwards once generated
17% western side of central america
20% north western and eastern Australia

170
Q

What are different names for tropical storms?

A

Hurricanes- USA
Cyclones- Asia and majority of Australia
Typhoons- Japan
Willy Willies- northern Australia

171
Q

When do tropical storms usually occur?

A

Late summer/early autumn
This is getting shorter however

172
Q

What temperature do seas need to be for tropical storms to develop?

A

26.5 degrees c

173
Q

What is the calmest part of a tropical storm?

A

Eye

174
Q

What weather systems are needed for tropical storms to form?

A

Low pressure

175
Q

How do tropical storms form?

A

When the ocean surface waters reaches at least 27°C due to solar heating, the warm air above the water rises quickly, causing an area of very low pressure.
As the air rises quickly more warm moist air is drawn upwards from above the ocean creating strong winds.
The rising warm air spirals upward and cools. The water vapour it carries condenses and forms cumulonimbus clouds.
These cumulonimbus clouds form the eye wall of the storm.

176
Q

How do tropical storms die out?

A

When tropical storms reach a land surface, they begin to lose their energy and die out. This is because they are no longer receiving heat energy and moisture from the ocean, which is needed to drive them.

177
Q

What are four primary hazards formed due to tropical storms?

A

Strong winds
Storm surges
Coastal and river flooding
Landslides

178
Q

Where was Cyclone Nargis and when?

A

Myanmar in May 2008

179
Q

What are the factors which made Cyclone Nargis more severe?

A
  • Bay of Bengal (category 1 to category 4 storm in around 24 hours).
  • Many live on the Irrawaddy delta
    10000 killed due to many living in areas less than 5m above sea level.
  • Storm surge was 4m in height in some areas.
  • 3 weeks for the first international rescue effort to arrive.
180
Q

How did Italy help after Cyclone Nargis?

A

Italian flights could enter from May 7 to bring food.
Donated 140 tonnes of medicine and tents.

181
Q

How much did the UK donate for Cyclone Nargis?

A

17 million GBP of aid

182
Q

When was Hurricane Katrina?

A

August 2005

183
Q

Timeline of Hurricane Katrina.

A

28 Aug- winds up to 215 mph
29 Aug- 6am small towns such as Slidell hit badly then New Orleans later on
31 Aug- 170mm rainfall in one day in Quebec province
5 Sept- Over half of New Orleans population had fled

184
Q

What are characteristics of hazard hotspots?

A

Vulnerability
Hydrometeorological hazards
Tectonic hazards or localised geomorphic hazards.

185
Q

Name a multi hazard environment.

A

Haiti

186
Q

When was Hurricane Matthew and what were the effects?

A

4 Oct 2016
Latanye on La Gonave island completely flooded
25% of homes partially or completely destroyed.

187
Q

What were the effects of 2021 Strom Grace and the 2021 Earthquake in Haiti?

A

August 2021
Flash floods and landslides
50mm rainfall per hour
80% buildings in rural areas destroyed
9 drowned
30000 homeless

188
Q

What were the characteristics of the 2021 Haiti earthquake?

A

7.2 magnitude
62 miles deep (shallow focus)
Located in the mountains between the Nippes and Sud departments.

189
Q

What made the effects of the 2021 Haiti earthquake worse?

A

Covid added to income loss and food insecurity.
Many NGOs had left due to the disruption in the country.
President Moise was assassinated in July 2021.
Ariel Henry chosen as acting president.
5 weeks after death the earthquake and storm occured.

190
Q

What caused the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

A

A slip along an existing fault- Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault

191
Q

What waves were produced after the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

A

Rayleigh and Long waves

192
Q

How high was the tsunami caused by the 2010 Haiti earthqauke?

A

3m

193
Q

How many civil servants were killed by the 2010 haiti earthqauke?

A

25%

194
Q

How much rubble was left in port au prince after the Haiti 2010 earthquake?

A

19 million cubic meters

195
Q

After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, how much did Haiti’s GDP contract by?

A

5.1%

196
Q

As of 2018 how many Haitians were still living in refugee camps?

A

1.5 million

197
Q

What is the literacy rate in Haiti?

A

61%

198
Q

What is the life expectancy in Haiti?

A

62 years

199
Q

How many Haitians were killed by Hurricane Matthew?

A

1600

200
Q

How many Haitians were made homeless by Hurricane Matthew?

A

140000

201
Q

How much did the UNHCR donate in 2015 to the cholera and refugee crisis in Haiti?

A

21 million USD

202
Q

What has the charity Architects for Humanity done in Haiti?

A

Set up Haiti Rebuilding Centre in Port-au-Prince .

203
Q

What has the International Health Partnership done in Haiti?

A

Sent doctors and nurses to Haiti and provides free training for potential Hatian doctors and nurses.

204
Q

Name a local hazardous area.

A

Yarm

205
Q

What does the Environment Agency Yarm Flood Alleviation scheme involve?

A

3km of flood wall and 32 flood gates in Yarm

206
Q

How does the Environemnt Agency work with the community in Yarm?

A

Drop in events at Yarm Library

207
Q

What does Tees Barrage do?

A

Reduces the risk of
flooding at very high tides or during a storm surge

22km stretch of river
between Yarm and Stockton is now kept permanently at high tide.

208
Q

How much did the flood defence scheme in Yarm cost?

A

£2.1 million

209
Q

How many properties in Yarm are at risk of flooding?

A

9600 but may rise to 11230 due to climate change

210
Q

Why does the River Tees need to be managed?

A

Flashy river
Densely populated area
Industry such as ICI chemical works

211
Q

When was the original Yarm flood alleviation scheme completed?

A

1993

212
Q

How high was 1771 Yarm flood?

A

6m

213
Q

Who was Haiti a former colony of?

A

France- became independent in 1804

214
Q

What is management?

A

Coordinated strategies to reduce a hazard’s effects. This includes
prediction, adaptation, mitigation.

215
Q

What is risk sharing?

A

A form of community preparedness, whereby the community shares the risk posed by a natural hazard and invests collectively to mitigate the impacts of future hazards.

216
Q

Where has risk sharing been used?

A

In New Zealand there are now attempts to share the risk by insurance investment, so strategies can be put in place before the disasters rather than investing more in a clean up.

217
Q

What was ‘Hope for Haiti Now’?

A

The most-watched telethon in history aired on 22 January, raising US$58 million by the next day.
Involved celebrities such as Justin Timberlake, Taylor Swift and Leonardo di Caprio.

218
Q

What are deep sea trenches?

A

Ocean Trenches are deep water areas that run along a coastline which has a destructive plate margin.
They are created by subduction, and mark the point where the Oceanic crust is being pushed under the Oceanic crust.
There is often quite a large section of continental crust between this margin and the ocean’s edge, and sometimes a volcanic island arc such as Japan can be found in between the trench and the continental shelf

219
Q

What are ocean ridges?

A

Mid ocean ridges, which are long ridges of mountains created by 2 plates moving apart at a constructive plate margin.

220
Q

What are ocean ridges?

A

Mid ocean ridges, which are long ridges of mountains created by 2 plates moving apart at a constructive plate margin.

221
Q

What are rift valleys?

A

Constructive plate boundaries.
Two continental plates.
Land forced apart which forms a rift valley.
Volcanoes can form.
Eventually they valley will fill with water, separating them from the main island.

222
Q

What is an example of a rift valley?

A

The Great Rift Valley runs from Lebanon in Asia to Mozambique in Southeast Africa.

223
Q

What are young fold mountains?

A

Fold mountains are formed when two plates move together at a destructive plate margin.
This can be where two continental plates move towards each other or a continental and an oceanic plate. The movement of the two plates forces sedimentary rocks upwards into a series of folds.
Fold mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks and are usually found along the edges continents.
This is because the thickest deposits of sedimentary rock generally accumulate along the edges of continents. When plates and the continents riding on them collide, the accumulated layers of rock crumple and fold.

Young fold mountains (10 to 25 million years of age, e.g. Rockies and Himalayas).

224
Q

What are shockwaves?

A

When plates move energy built up, becomes kinetic energy, released and vibrates through ground.

225
Q

What is liquefaction?

A

Saturated soil, act like liquid, weakens soil, more likely to subside when large weight is put on it.

226
Q

What is an example of liquefactioning happening?

A

The 1964 Niigata earthquake caused widespread liquefaction in Niigata, Japan which destroyed many buildings.

226
Q

What is an example of liquefactioning happening?

A

The 1964 Niigata earthquake caused widespread liquefaction in Niigata, Japan which destroyed many buildings.

227
Q

What are tsunamis?

A

Oceanic crust jolted during an earthquake.
All water above the plate id displaced.
Water travels fast with low amplitude.
As it gets closer to the coast, the sea level decreases so there is friction between sea bed and waves.
Causes waves to slow down and gain height.
This creates a wall of water which on average is 10ft high.

228
Q

What is a tsunami example?

A

2004 Boxing Day Tsunami caused by a 9.1–9.3 magnitude earthquake with an epicentre off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia.
100ft high waves.

229
Q

What is a landslide?

A

Landslides arise when rocks and unconsolidated material usually on a cliff face is saturated with water (rain or wave-splash). Eventually the material slips down the slope.

230
Q

How many people went missing Cyclone Nargis?

A

Around 55,000

231
Q

What infleunced the reflief efforts after Cyclone Nargis?

A

The 2008 Sichuan earthquake occurred nearby and measured 7.9 in magnitude, taking 87,500 lives.

A Level Geography (6 decks)

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