Contemporary Urban Environments Flashcards
1
Q
What is urbanisation?
A
Urbanisation is the growth in the proportion of a country’s population that live in an urban environment compared to rural environment.
2
Q
In 2008 how many people lived in urban areas?
A
3.3 billion
3
Q
Where are urbanisation rates worse?
A
Poorer regions of the world (LICs)
4
Q
What is urban growth?
A
Increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas.
5
Q
How much of the world’s wealth comes from cities?
A
75%
6
Q
How much has Mumbai’s population grown in 20 years?
A
40%
7
Q
In 2050, how many people are predicted to live in cities in India?
A
700 million
8
Q
Where is Asia’s largest slum?
A
Mumbai
9
Q
What is an economic process associated with urbanisation?
A
- Large companies moving to cities.
10
Q
What are three social processes associated with urbanisation?
A
- Increased poverty and crime
- Segregation
- More services such as schools
11
Q
What are two demographic processes associated with urbanisation?
A
- Most people are young and are part of the working population.
- Ethnically diverse.
12
Q
What is urban sprawl?
A
The unplanned growth of urban areas into the surrounding countryside.
13
Q
What are the three most urbanised regions in the world?
A
North America (82%), Latin America and the Caribbean (81%) and Europe (74%).
14
Q
How much is the total world urban population predicted to be by 2045.
A
Six billion
15
Q
In recent years why have some cities have experienced population decline?
A
Economic contraction (Detroit, USA)
Low fertility rates (Nagasaki, Japan and Busan, South Korea)
Emigration (Poznan, Poland)
Natural disaster (New Orleans, USA- Hurricane Katrina)
16
Q
What are squatter settlements?
A
Squatter settlements are densely packed ‘houses’ near city centres made with scrap materials. They have inadequate services and are ‘non-legal’.
17
Q
What is a megacity?
A
A city with a population over 10 million.
18
Q
How many megacities were there in 1990?
A
10
19
Q
How many megacities were there in 2020?
A
30
20
Q
How many megacitites does the UN predict to exist by 2030?
A
43
21
Q
In 2015 what was the largest city and what was its population?
A
Tokyo (37.4 million)
22
Q
Is Tokyo’s population expected to increase or decline?
A
Decline by almost 900,000 by 2030.
23
Q
What are metacities?
A
A conurbation of more than 20 million people.
24
Q
What does the Chinese government plan to do in terms of metacities?
A
Merge nine cities in the Pearl River Delta to create an urban areas 26 times larger than Greater London.
25
How much on Kenya's GDP comes from Nairobi?
Almost 20%.
26
What is 'Nappy Valley'
An area stretching from Clapham westwards towards Fulham which has a high proportion of young families.
27
Push factors of rural-urban migration.
- Over-farming, soil erosion and low yields due to rapid population growth.
- Inadequate medical provision.
- Natural disasters.
- Wars and civil wars.
28
Pull factors of rural-urban migration.
- Employmeny in factories in service industries which usually pay better.
- Better quality social provisions such as healthcare and education.
- Percieved better quality of life.
29
Name 5 problems with urban sprawl.
- Habitat loss.
- Requires more infrastructure which is not very economically sufficient.
- Causes more commuting from the suburbs to city and so more traffic congestion and fuel consumption.
- Decline of retail in city centres due to decentralisation.
- Increased flooding due to more surface runoff.
30
In 2017 how many people were estimated to live in slums?
900 million
31
Approximately how many people live in slums in India?
104 million
32
What are informal settlements called in Brazil?
Favelas
33
What are informal settlements called in West Africa?
Bidonvilles.
34
Between 2000 and 2015 how many people living in slums did the UN report as having gained access to improved water sources and sanitation facilities?
320 million
35
What initiatives have been mainly used to help improve slums?
Slum upgrading programs and self help schemes.
36
What is Slum Dwellers International (SDI)?
An organisation which gives a voice to people living in informal settlements and links up poor communities across Africa, Asia and Latin America.
37
What is the largest slum in Asia?
Dharavi, Mumbai
38
What types of small-scale industries are located in Dharavi?
Small manufacturing units produce leather goods, aluminium bricks and pottery.
They also recycle plastics for both the domestic and international markets.
39
What is the state government's plan to redevelop Dharavi?
£1.1 billion plan to transform it into a modern township complete with proper housing, shopping complexes, hospitals and schools.
40
In London how much have average house prices risen by between 2010 and 2019?
70%
41
What is gentrification?
The buying and renovating of properties, often in more run-down areas, by wealthier individuals.
42
What is Portland Road an example of?
Gentrification
43
What was the first social housing on Portland Road?
Nottingwood House
44
What is the average price of houses of Portland Road?
Just over £3 million
45
What is counter-urbanisation and what act encouraged it?
The movement of people from large urban areas into smaller urban areas or rural areas.
New Towns Act 1946 encouraged this with the construction of Milton Keynes and Basildon.
46
What is decentralisation?
The movement of population and industry from the urban centre to outlying areas.
47
What is deindustrialisation?
The loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector, which mainly occured in the UK in the second half of the 20th century.
48
What is an edge city?
A self-contained settlement which has emerged beyond the original city boundary and developed in a city in its own right.
49
What is suburbanisation?
The movement of people from the inner city to living on the outer edges.
50
What is urban resurgence?
The regeration, both economic and structural, of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline.
51
In the 1930's where was the main growth of suburbs?
Along main roads and suburban railway lines.
This was known as 'ribbon development'.
52
What was the Green Belts Act 1947?
Green belts were created in response to out of control development.
53
When was 'Right to Buy' introduced?
1980s by Margaret Thatcher
54
Name a government policy which has encouraged counter-urbanisation.
New Towns Act 1946 saw 21 established by 1970.
8 were London 'overspill' towns.
Stevenage was the first.
55
Pull factors of urban areas.
- Sense of community
- High speed internet
- Car ownership
- Village schools
- Low crime rates
- Greater affluence so people have second homes
56
Name 3 pieces of evidence for counter-urbanisation.
- Increased value of houses in the area
- Increased use of a commuter railway station
- Conversions of former farm buildings to exclusive residences
57
Urban resurgence in Middlesborough.
- 57.5 hectares of land regenerated
- 5500 new homes built
- 2500 enterprises
- 450000 people live within 20 minutes
58
What is the doughnut effect?
Rich inner city development surrounded by 'acres of gloom'
59
Urban resurgence in the Jewellery Quarter, Birmingham
- Originally a centre for jewellery making (secondary)
- Blitz bombing led to decline in areas fortune
- 30 restaurants, bars and cafes have been built (tertiary)
- 144 apartments above Harvey Nichols cost up to £350,000
- Over 3000 new homes have been built in the centre of Birmingham
60
Name an example of urban resurgence in the USA
The High Line, New York
61
How many rain gardens are there in New York?
Around 5000-6000 across the five boroughs.
62
What do rain gardens do?
Collect stormwater.
The soil absorbs water through infiltration.
Dropped curb which allows water to flow in and out.
Drain water in 48 hours or less.
Plants are installed and possibly a tree to intercept but also to provide shade.
63
How much has been spent in NYC to improve waterways?
$10 billion
64
How much of NYC is impervious?
72%
65
Who in New York plans the construction of urban drainage systems?
The Office of Green Infrastructure
66
Where does most of the water in New York come from?
Reservoirs about 100 miles away.
67
How much was spent on watershed protection in NYC?
$1.2 billion
68
Does NYC have a combines sewage overflow?
Yes
69
What are the seven steps of sewage treatment in the UK?
1. Taking the wastewater away
2. Screening the wastewater
3. Carrying out primary treatment- solid removal
4. Carrying out secondary treatment- bacteria removal
5. Carrying out final treatment- final bacteria removal
6. Generating power with some waste- could be hydroelectric
7. Returning water to rivers and returning solids to land.
70
What does SUDS stand for?
Sustainable urban drainage system
71
What is the aim of SUDS?
Align modern drainage systems with natural water processes.
72
What are 4 examples of SUDS?
Wetland systems, bioswales, retention tanks and permeable pavements.
73
What is discharge?
The volume of water that flows in a river per second.
74
What is river discharge measured in?
Cumecs- m3/s
75
What is the discharge of the River Amazon?
209000 m3/s
76
What is the discharge of the River Tees?
200 m3/s
77
What does high peak discharge lead to?
Short lag time
78
What does low peak discharge lead to?
Long lag time
79
Name five factors which influence discharge?
- Intensity of rainfall
- Antecedent conditions
- Interception
- Infiltration
- Urbanisation
80
Name a location where river restoration has taken place?
Cheonggyecheon, Seoul, South Korea
81
When was the Cheonggyecheon river covered?
2003
It lasted 2 years
82
How much does the Cheonggyecheon river restoration scheme cost?
$281 million
83
What were the three reasons/aims for/of the Cheonggyecheon restoration scheme?
Create recreational/ecological opportunities
100,000 small businesses next to the overpass and area were polluted
Improve connectivity between north and south of the city.
84
How many bridges were built in Cheonggyecheon?
22
85
What work was carried out as part of the Cheonggyecheon restoration scheme?
Freeway and concrete deck covering the stream were dismantled
Car use was discouraged
Water from Hanang River was pumped to the area for consistent flow
A corridor runs from Seoul to ecological conservation area and it is split into three sections.
86
How many visitors visited Cheonggyecheon by the end of 2008?
18.1 million
87
Who included the Cheonggyecheon restoration in their bid to become may of Seoul and what year was it?
President Lee Myung-bak
88
How much did the average temperature in Cheonggyecheon decrease by once the restoration had finished?
2.5 degrees c
89
What was there a protest for in 2005 about in Cheonggyecheon?
Accessability
90
Name five sources of waste.
Industrial (chemical) waste
Food waste
Green waste
Plastic waste
Fabric waste
91
Why is there more waste in urban areas?
Higher population density
92
What two types of waste are significantly higher in urban areas?
Industrial and plastic (food covered in plastic)
93
Do HIC's have better waste control/organisation?
Yes
94
Do LIC's have better waste management?
Yes
E.g. using waste to build informal housing
95
How many oysters did New York have per person per year?
600 but water pollution decreased this.
96
What did a law in Ney York surrounding water pollution prevent?
Made it illegal for raw sewage to enter the Hudson but it naturally happens everytime it rains.
97
Has the waste been getting clearer in the Hudson since 1972?
Yes
98
How many people live in NYC?
8.5 million
99
What percentage of NYC's sewers is where stormwater and general pollution mix and what are they called?
60% and these are combined sewers.
100
How much discharge of combined sewage is there per year in NYC?
1.5 billion gallons
101
What is a bioswale?
An area of plants, vegetation and soil which absorb water to stop it flowing into drains.
102
Name an example of where bioswales can be found in NYC.
Soundview Park
103
What percentage of impervious surfaces are rooftops in NYC?
40%, these are typically privately owned.
104
What sort of health issues have people in NYC experienced due to water pollution?
Eye infections
105
What are household recycling rates in the UK?
Around 44%
106
Where are unrecyclable materials sent in the UK?
EfW to be turned into energy
107
How many houses does 35 megawatts of EfW provide energy to?
35000
108
How many tonnes of waste is produced in the UK per year?
30 million
109
When was the highest rainfall recorded in Mumbai?
July 26, 2005
110
When was the day with second highest rainfall recorded in Mumbai?
July 2, 2021
111
Where experienced a drought just before the high rainfall in Mumbai in 2021?
Maharashtra
Dought of 50% of geographical area
112
How many mm of rainfall per hour do the Mumbai's drains have?
2mm in low tide
113
Mumbai has lost how much of its mangrove forest between the 1990s and 2005?
40%
114
How many people died due to rain related incidents on July 1st 2019?
30
115
When was the BRIMSTOWAD project proposed?
1993 after the 1985 floods
Intended to be a long term road map for the city's vulnarability to flooding
116
When did the BRIMSTOWAD project start and why?
The 2005 floods due to the financial cost of the project.
117
Name four reasons why urban areas are at risk of flooding.
Large areas of impermeable surfaces
Surface runoff
Discharge of water from industrial and domestic uses
Lack of tree coverage
118
How do SUDS work?
Extend lag time
Encourage interception, evaporation, transpiration and infiltration
Mimic natural processes to slow the movement of water of water through a landscape.
119
What is a SUDS?
A new approach to managing rainfall by using natural processes in the landscape to reduce flooding, control flooding and proved amenities for the community.
120
What are the three types of SUDS?
Source control
Site control
Regional control
121
What are source control SUDS?
Store the water where it falls.
- Permeable pavements
- Rain gardens
- Water butts and tanks
122
What are site control SUDS?
Store the water in one location but away from where it fell.
- Permanent ponds
- Directing water from roofs and carparks to bioswales
123
What are regional control SUDS?
Store water over a larger scale project
- Large ponds
- Permanent wetlands
124
What are the benefits of SUDS?
- Increase green spaces in cities
- Imrpove urban biodiversity
- Evapotranspiration reduces urban heat island effect
- Improve water quality through encouraging sediment settling, biological breakdown and filtering pollutants.
- Increase lag time which reduces peak discharge
125
What are the challenges of SUDS?
- Infiltration wouldn't work in previously industrial areas as there may be pollutants.
- Cities are short on space so large systems cannot be used (use green roofs and rain gardens in this situation however).
126
What are the two types of flooding?
Pluvial- when intensity of rainfall increases
Fluvial- when the river rises up
127
How much of Austria's waste is recycled?
63%
128
How much waste is produced in each household per year in the UK?
Half a tonne
129
In HICs, how much waste is produced per person per day?
2100g
130
In LICs, how much waste is produced per person per day?
600g
131
What country is the world's largest waste generator?
China
132
What are the seven parts of the waste hierachy from most to least preferred option?
Reduce
Reuse
Recycle
Recover
Landfill
Incineration
Controlled dump
133
What event triggered high amount of air pollution in the UK?
Industrial revolution
134
How much more dust particles are there in cities than rural areas?
7x more
135
How much more sulfur dioxide are there in cities than rural areas?
200x
136
How much more nitrogen oxide are there in cities than rural areas?
10x
137
How much more hydrocarbons are there in cities than rural areas?
10x
138
How much more CO2 is there in cities than rural areas?
2x
139
Do cities experience increased cloud coverage and precipitation?
Yes
140
What causes increased temperatures in cities?
Photochemical smog
141
Effects of acid rain in UK.
So2 + NO -> acid rain
Sheldonian Oxford Sandstone heads have been eroded
142
London smog of 1952.
lasted 4 days
12000 related deaths
Anti-cyclone high pressure weather system
143
When was the Clean Air Act?
1956
Prompted by Great smog of 1952
144
Where does some of the air pollution in China come from?
Gobi Desert
145
Why is air pollution trapped in LA?
Surrounded by mountains
146
What is particulate pollution?
Microscopic particles we breathe in
147
What does photochemical pollution form and the health impact?
Low-level ozone and acid rain which damages haemoglobin.
148
What is smog?
Smoke+fog
149
When does smog occur?
When smoke and sulfur dioxide from coal burning, mix with exisiting fog or cause a thickening fog by adding additional condensation nuclei to already saturated air.
150
Who are responsible for air quality targets?
DEFRA
151
London Congestion Charging Zone.
2005
Costed £5 (90% discount for residents) but now £15 as of 2020
100% discount for 'clean, environmentally friendly' cars
152
How much did the LCCZ decrease traffic by?
21%
153
How much did the LCCZ increase cyclists by?
43%
154
How much did the CCZ increase bus passengers by?
45%
155
How much did the LCCZ decrease CO2 and NO2 emmissions by?
12%
156
When was the Greater London Low Emission Zone introduced?
2008
Uses ANPR
157
When was the Ultra Low Emission Zone introduced and how much does it cost?
2019 and expanded in 2021
£12.50 per day on top of other charges
158
How much did the ULEZ cut high emission vehicles by?
1/3
159
What did the ULEZ cause in terms of NO2?
Levels dropped 3x faster than the rest of the UK
160
When were Santander Bikes introduced?
2010
161
How many Santander Bikes are there?
11500 with 750 docking stations
162
How many annual riders are there for Santander Bikes (2019)?
10,168,936
163
What was the cost of Santander Bikes?
£140 million
164
How many 'cycle superhighways' exist in London?
12
165
What is the Parisian alternative of Santander Bikes?
Velibre
166
What is the Manchester alternative of Santander Bikes?
Mobike
167
Hybrid Buses
1500 environmentally buses inc 600 new routemasters.
30% lower emissions than normal buses
Use regenerative breakting
168
What is used in Mexico City to reduce car usage?
'Hay no circular'- cars are only allowed into the city on certain days based on number plate.
169
What is sustainability?
A practice that meets the needs of today's generation without compromising the ability of tomorrow's generation to fulfil their needs.
170
In 2007 what was the average person's footprint globally?
2.7 global hectares
171
What is UN Sustainable Development Goal 11?
Sustainable cities and communities
172
What are the three dimensions of sustainability?
Social
Environmental
Economic
173
Main features of sustainable cities in HICs.
Walkable cities
New homes are more energy efficient
174
Main features of sustainable cities in LICs.
Improved access to education (LIghthouses of Knowledge, Curitiba)
Cultural and social amenities accessable for all
175
Main features of sustainable cities in HICs and LICs.
Good public transport
More green space- may be easier to achieve in HICs
Green buildings
Urban resilience
Waste seen as a resource and recycled wherever possible.
176
Where is Babcock Ranch?
Southwestern Florida
177
How many houses at Babcock Ranch?
Nearly 20,000.
178
How is power generated at Babcock Ranch?
Solar panels during the day
Electrical grid at night and if there are overcast days
179
How is Babcock Ranch connected?
Autonomous electric shuttles
180
Name a facility at Babcock Ranch.
A school with 'project based learning'
181
Is Babcock Ranch walkable?
No due to the low density
182
Name an example of a local currency?
Bristol pounds- circular economy to maximise the multiplier effect.
Local scale and cannot be used in other areas
Encourages use in smaller, local businesses.
183
Would local currencies work in LICs?
No
Many workers get paid by large TNCs
184
Name an example of an eco village and describe it
BedZED
Construction materials came from a 30 mile radius
250 homes with solar panels
Community vegetable patch
Most people knew around 20 of their neighbours
185
Why is the bus system in Curitiba effective?
Pay before getting on the bus
186
Name four strategies for developing a sustainable city.
- Invest in infrastructure and services
- Invest in production of renewable energy sources
- Provision of more green areas
- Active participation of different city stakeholders such as local communities and government
187
What is liveability and an example?
Have a competitive economy, sustainable environment and a high quality of life.
Copenhagen, Denmark
188
What makes a city liveable?
Integrated and long term planning and development, and visionary and pragmatic governance.
Lack of conflict, natural disasters and authoritarianism.
189
Limitations to the concept of liveability.
Requires many government departments to work together which could be hard to arrange.
190
What is urban resilience?
The capacity of a city's systems, businesses, institutions, communities and individuals to survive, adapt and grow, no matter what chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience.
191
What are chronic stresses?
Slow moving disasters that weaken the fabric of a city.
An example would include chronic food and water shortages, high unemployment and endemic violence.
192
What are acute shocks?
Sudden, sharp events that threaten a city.
For example, terrorist attacks and earthquakes
193
What is happening in Flint, Michigan, USA?
Over 100,000 people but only 98 officers.
Economic inequality due to car industry closure.
Around 102,000 residents exposed to multiple chemicles and biological threats
A study of 320 residents found declines in health and mental health related to stressors such as financial concerns and less resilience.
194
How many commutes in Copenhagen are by bike?
40%
195
How many people use their bike everyday in Copenhagen?
50%
196
How many employees work more than 40h per week in Copenhagen?
2%
197
How many miles of cycle lanes are there in Copenhagen?
249 miles including Cykleslangen (bike bridge)
198
What does the EfW plant in Copenhagen also act as?
Dry ski slope
199
How many wind turbines are aimed to be added by 2025 in Copenhagen?
100
200
How much CO2 is saved per year in Copenhagen?
Between 10,000 and 20,000 tonnes
201
Are there high taxes in Copenhagen?
Yes, to invest in sustainable developments and a generous welfare state.
202
Where is Copenhagen?
Denmark
203
Who was the mayor for sustainability in 2009 in Copenhagen?
Klaus Bondam
204
Example of a cloudburst street and the function.
Sankt Annae Square
Greenspace in the middle of a street which is esentially a retention tank.
205
What is the new urban district focused on sustainable development in Copenhagen?
Nordhavn
206
Name a place which can be used to compare landfill to incineration.
AEB Amsterdam
207
Advantages of landfill.
Easy to construct
Cheap
A method for non-recyclables
Reduces transportation of waste
Creates jobs
Produces less greenhouse gas than EfW
Used for temporary storage.
208
Disadvantages of landfill.
Soil and water pollution
Large amount of space needed
Smell and rodents
Visual pollution which can deter tourism and other industries
Land is harder to use in the future
Hazardous waste may be sent to landfill
209
Advantages of incineration.
Reduction in volume by 90%
Good for urban areas which have less space
No problem with odours or rodents
Energy from waste
Ash is used in construction
Allows for conservation of conventional sources
210
Disadvanatges of incineration.
Potential pollutants in ash and air
Respiratory issues
Dioxins are carcinogenic
Emissions accumulated in food systems
High initial start up and maintenance cost
Incineration of recyclable waste
211
When was AEB created and opened?
Operating company created by city council in 1992, plant began operating in 1993 in Westpoort
212
What is the capacity of AEB?
900000 tonnes.
213
How much energy does AEB produce per year?
525 GWh
214
Is AEB the largest plant in the world?
Largest single EfW plant in the world, employing 400 people
215
How energy efficient is AEB?
30%
216
Describe the history of landfill bans in the Netherlands.
Lansink’s Ladder added to Dutch legislation in 1994
Pollution and odours meant landfill was unpopular
1995 Landfill Tax on companies for every tonne landfilled, repealed in 2012
Landfill ban on 35 categories 1995
Reaches landfill directive 2016 targets in 2006
217
How much CO2 is saved by AEB per year?
438 kilotons of CO2 are saved by EFW plant.
218
What is peak discharge?
Maximum amount of water held in the channel.
219
What is lag time?
The time taken between peak rainfall and peak discharge.
220
What is rising limb?
Shows the increase in discharge on a hydrograph.
221
What is falling limb?
Shows the return of discharge to normal/base flow on a hydrograph.
222
What is base flow?
The normal discharge of the river.
223
What does the bar chart on a hydrograph show?
Rainfall (on left axis)
224
What does a hydrograph show?
How a river responds to a period of rainfall.
225
What does the non bar chart of a hydrograph show?
River discharge (cumecs)- right axis
226
What are four categories to compare London and Mumbai?
Facts and figures
Economic and social wellbeing
Physical environment conditions
Sustainability
227
Where is Mumbai located?
On the West Coast
228
What is the largest city in India and the population?
Mumbai, population of over 25 million
229
How much of India's income tax comes from Mumbai?
33%
230
How much of India's GDP comes from Mumbai?
6.16%
231
What state is Mumbai the capital of?
Maharashtra
232
How much of India's foreign trade comes from Mumbai?
40%
233
What is the most densely populated city in the world?
Mumbai
234
Who hosted the 2012 Olympic games?
London
235
How many languages are spoken in London?
More than 300
236
How many non-indigenous communities with a population over 10,000 are in London?
At least 50
237
By 2050, what is the population of London projected to be?
11 million
238
In 2019, what was the population of London?
8.9 million
239
What is the capital city of the UK?
London
240
How many people in London live in poverty?
2.1 million
241
How many employees in London paid less than the London Living Wage?
21%
242
How many adults in London are out of work and on benefits?
8%
243
In less than a decade, how much has the infant mortality rate in London decreased by?
40%
244
How many people in Mumbai live in slumns?
Around 60%
245
How many people are there per km2 in the Dharavi slum?
300,000 people in poor conditions
246
How many people share some toilets in the Dharavi Slum?
1000
247
What thrives in the Dharavi Slum?
Cottage industries- produce over us$650m of goods per year.
248
How many deaths in Kensington and Chelsea are caused by air pollution?
8.3%
249
How much warmer is the centre of London than surrounding rural areas?
10 degrees c
250
How much of London is on floodplain?
15%
251
What project in London is targeted to prevent flooding damage to infrastructure?
TE2100
252
Does Mumbai have a monsoon season?
Yes
253
In 2019, what was the highest amount of rainfall in Mumbai which fell in one day and the consequences?
250mm
400 died
10000 homes destroyed
254
What is the 2nd most at risk city in the world to flooding?
Mumbai
255
In 2005, what plan was created in Mumbai in response to flooding?
Greater Mumbai Disaster Management Action Plan
256
Sustainability in London.
- In 2002, the London Sustainable Development Comission was created to make London a sustainable world city.
257
Sustainability in Mumbai.
- Government led Dharavi Redevelopment Project will give all residents who've lived there since 2000 a 300ft2 house for free.
- This could however lead to a loss of sense of community.
258
When did UDCs start?
1980s
259
What does UDC stand for?
Urban Development Corporation
260
What were two focuses of UDCs?
- The physical redevelopment of derelict land.
- Securing private capital and private sector expertise in redeveloping the area.
261
What were the first two UDCs to be created?
London Docklands and Merseyside
262
How many UDCs were created in the 1980s and 90s?
12
263
How much did the government invest on London Docklands through the UDC?
£1.86 billion but by 2000, private investment was estimated to be worth £6.67 billion.
264
How many homes did the London Docklands UDC provide?
24,046
265
How much office space did the 12 UDCs provide?
5.4 million m2
266
How many jobs did the 12 UDCs create?
150000
267
Negative and positive impacts of UDCs.
- Ignored local people and their needs.
+ Brought economic development to an area.
268
How much did the population in the London Docklands rise by between 1981 and 1997?
40000
269
Name two companies found in the London Docklands area.
Littlejohn Frazer
HSBC
270
When and who launched city challenge?
John Major's government in 1991
271
When was city challenged scrapped?
1994
272
How many authorities that applied for city challenge were successful?
31/57
273
How did city challenge work?
It worked by local authorities submitting bids to the national government to receive funding.
274
How much did the city challenge offer per year and how long for?
£82.5 million a year for 5 years.
275
Name an example of a place where city challenge took place.
Hulme, Manchester
276
How many houses in Hulme were council owned?
98%
277
What were the plans for Hulme city challenge?
Build 3,000 new homes and improve infrastructure and community facilities.
278
When was Hulme successful in their city challenge bid?
1992
279
By 1995, what had happened in Hulme due to the city challenge?
600 new rental homes had been built and 300 refurbished, the main shopping centre had been completely refurbished and a new community centre had been built and crime in the area also greatly reduced.
280
How much money was invested into Hulme city challenge?
Roughly £400 million of public and private money was invested.
281
Is Hulme still one of the most deprived areas in the UK?
Yes
282
Name the positives and negatives of city challenge.
+ Local communities were more involved with schemes than they were with UDCs.
+ Competition encouraged local authorities to suggest solutions as well as identify problems.
- All successful bidders received the same amount of money, irrespective of need.
- Competition forced neighbouring authorities to compete which was an issue as disadvantaged areas tend not to coincide with administrative boundaries.
283
What was the New Deal for Communities?
Launched in 1998 by Tony Blair's government as part
of the government's National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal (it focused on the 39 poorest communities, which accommodated a total of 9,800 people).
284
How many round 1 and round 2 schemes were there (NDC)?
17- round 1
22- round 2
285
In New Deal for Communities how much money did each area receieve?
£50 million
286
What were the aims of New Deal for Communities?
To transform these 39 areas over 10 years by achieving holistic change in relation to three place-related outcomes including: crime, community, and housing and the physical environment, and three people-related outcomes: education, health, and worklessness.
287
Name an example of where New Deal for Communities took place.
Devonport, Plymouth
288
What was done in Devonport, Plymouth?
Turning the deprived, derelict area of Devonport into a greener, newer, more social place with the Devonport Guildhall as a centre for social enterprise.
289
Why was Devonport chosen for New Deal for Communities?
Low education levels, high crime rates and rapidly increasing
poverty and unemployment rates as businesses began to shut down.
290
What is urban form?
The physical characteristics that go towards making up an urban area.
291
Name four factors that make up urban form.
- Shape
- Size
- Density of population
- Configuration of the settlement
292
Name six things that UKs urban form is characterised by.
- Dispersed, very small settlements comprising a few dwellings.
- Small towns and villages.
- 56 towns and cities with more than 125000 people in a continuous built-up landscape.
- 64 'primary urban areas'- areas that have populations over 125000
- Six large metropolitan areas (Newcastle, Leeds, Sheffield, Birmingham, Liverpool and Manchester).
- One built up megacity region (London).
293
Name four physical factors affecting settlement location.
Wet points- good water supply
Dry points- areas away froma risk of flooding
Gap towns- between two areas of high land
Resources- in the past Aberfan in the Welsh Valleys being close to accessible coal services.
294
Name two human factors which affect settlement location.
Trading centres
Government policy
295
What is walkable urbanism?
An urban design movemement which encourages planners to design urban spaces that encourage walking and exploring.
296
What is a brownfield site?
Land that has previously been used, suffered decline and is now available for rdevlopment.
297
Urban characteristics in LICs and HICs.
HICs-
- Sustainability
- Sustainable transport
LICs-
- Informal settlements
- Lack of services
298
Name a recent sustainable housing estate.
Jakriborb, southern Sweden
- Narrow roads
- In 2003 population was 500 families but there are plans to expand.
299
What are town centre mixed developments?
When redeveloping town centres, a combination of residential, commercial, cultural, institutional and industrial uses are developed.
300
What is a fortress development?
City developments that integrate greater security into the design of the building or landscaping.
301
Five features of fortress landscapes.
- High walls or fences
- CCTV
- Security bollards, roller shutters and grilles
- Electronic locking systems
- Clear boundary lines between different territories.
302
Example of a fortress landscape.
American Embassy in Battersea and Wandsworth
- Moat
303
What is the anti skateboarding and anti homeless bench in London?
Camden bench
304
Causes of greater pollution in beijing.
- Coal accounts for 70% of all energy used in Beijing.
- Heating boilers and household stoves account for 34% of all SPM emissions
- Annual coal consumption in Beijing is 21 million tonnes.
305
Solutions to air pollution in Beijing.
- Between 2008 and 2012, $17 billion was spent on improving air quality.
- Industry was also shut prior to the 2008 olympics this was around 300 factories however this isn’t a sustainable long term measure.
306
What are the 9 features of post modern western cities?
Fragmentation
Globalisation
Simulation
Fortification
Beautification
Information
Gentrification
Decentralisation
Privatisation
307
Fragmentation in London and Mumbai.
London-
- Multi-nodal city
- Financial centre (City of London) and political centre (Westminster) etc.
Mumbai-
- Has slums such as Dharavi.
308
Globalisation in London and Mumbai.
London-
- 2012 Olympics causing opening of Westfield in 2011.
Mumbai-
- Starbucks opened in 2002 (Starbucks was established in 1971).
309
Simulation in London and Mumbai.
London-
- 20 Fenchurch Street
- The Shard
Mumbai-
- Out of the 100 tallest skyscrapers in Dharavi only 11 were built before 2000.
310
Fortification in London and Mumbai.
London-
- American embassy
Mumbai-
- CCTV security system with 4717 cameras in 1510 locations.
311
Beautification in London and Mumbai.
London-
- 20 Fenchurch and the Shard.
Mumbai-
- Mumbai has many skyscrapers but many lack investment in contemporary urban design.
312
Information in London and Mumbai.
London-
- Tech startups such as Zoopla and Asos
Mumbai-
- Milan's Bocconu Uni have a campus in Mumbai specialising in Business and Econ.
313
Gentrification in London and Mumbai.
London-
- Portland Road
Mumbai-
- Not common in Mumbai due to large numbers living in slums.
314
Decentralisation in London and Mumbai.
London-
- Urban sprawl has swallowed settlements such as Croydon and Woking.
Mumbai-
- Burgess model (CBD has highest prices).
315
Privatisation in London and Mumbai.
London-
- Canary Wharf
- Westfield Stratford
Mumbai-
- Much less common
- Several private shopping centres such as High Street Phoenix Mall
316
Name two ways to manage economic inequality.
- Enforcing a living wage (£11.05 per hour in London)
- Urban regeneration schemes (UDCs and London Docklands).
317
Name six ways to manage social segregation.
- Youth ambassador programmes
- Diversifying recruitment
- Mixed developments
- Clearance of slums
- In UK, integrated communities strategies are backed by £50m of government funding.
- In UK, Section 106 agreement is a fund which invests in services a developer wouldn't normally do.
318
Name three ways to manage both social segregation and economic inequality.
- Greater provision of public transport (Tees Flex, Teesside)
- Retail-led regeneration (Speke, Liverpool has had two retail parks built).
- In UK, Workforce Integration Network exists to increase employment rates for underrepresented groups in Lonsons' workforce.
319
What percentage of Londoners said their friends are the same ethnicity as them?
21%
320
How does the UK government measure poverty and inequality?
The Index of Multiple Deprivation
321
How is wealth distributed in Rio?
- 25.3% of total households earned less than two minimum salaries
- There are 520,000 households in favelas in Metro Rio
- Lower income households have more residential wealth than most people expect, mainly because they are often homeowners in informal settlements.
322
Urban issues due to inequality and segregation in Rio.
- Every day an estimated 150 metric tons of industrial wastewater flows into the bay of Rio de Janeiro.
- Rio de Janeiro is surrounded by mountains and this makes traffic management difficult.
- The city has a population of 6.7 million and approximately 85% of the population are employed.
323
Name an environmental solution in Rio.
Bike Rio scheme.
324
Does Rio have a sustainable development plan?
Yes
325
What is albedo?
The reflectivity of a surface.
Light surfaces have a greater albedo than dark surfaces.
326
What is particulate air pollution?
A form of air pollution caused by the release of particles and noxious gases into the atmosphere.
Emissions of particles can occur naturally but they are largely caused by the combusions of fossil fuels.
327
What is photochemical pollution?
A form of air pollution that occurs mainly in cities and can be dangerous to health.
Exhaust fumes become trapped by temperature inversions, and in the presence of sunlight, low-level ozone and other noxious gases form.
It is associated with high-pressure weather systems.
328
What is temperature inversion?
An atmospheric condition in which temperature, unusually, increases with height.
As temperature inversions do not allow convection, they trap pollution in the lower layer of the atmosphere.
329
What is urban heat island?
The zone around and above an urban area, which has higher temperatures than the surrounding rural areas.
330
What is urban microclimate?
The small-scale variations in temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and evaporation that occur in a particular environment such as an urban area.
331
Impact of urban areas on wind.
- Under intense heating, strong convectional processes form low pressure thermals over cities that can draw in strong localised wind.
- Buildings can exert a powerful frictional drag on air moving over and around them. This creates turbulence and can cause rapid and abrupt changes in wind direction and speed.
- Urban wind speeds are thought to be lowered by the friction and barrier of the urban canopy.
332
Impact of urban areas on precipitation.
- The number of rainy days are increased by 10%, although snow and hail days are reduced by 14%.
- In the UK, urban areas are thought to increase the amount of precipitation over the UK by as much as 30%.
- Increased convectional rainfall.
- Increased precipitation is due to the higher temperatures which encourage the development of lower pressure over cities in relation to surrounding areas.
- Another cause may be that cities produce large amounts of water vapour from industrial sources and power stations.
- UHI generates convection, and as ground surfaces are heated, rapid evapotranspiration takes place and can result in cumulus clouds and convectional weather patterns.
333
Impact of urban areas on pollution.
- Increased air pollution occurs in urban areas due to photochemical fog and particulate pollution.
334
Name a location where photochemical smog has impacted people's health and what has been done about it.
Los Angeles ('eye-sting').
Strategies have included stricter city vehicle emission standards and the Clean Air Action Plan.
335
Impact of urban areas on cloud coverage.
- Urban areas have greater cloud coverage (Met Office states in some places 5-10% more), this may be due to a greater concentration of condensation nuclei, which is around 100x more than rural areas.
- The presence of condensation nuclei encourages cloud formation, since water vapour needs a surface onto which condensation can take place.
336
What is the significance of 20 Fenchurch Street?
The concave design and mirrored glass caused the sun to shine intense rays of light on to the pavement below, causing cars to melt.
A brise soleil was fitted to prevent this problem.
337
Name six strategies for managing the urban heat island.
Cool surfaces
Green roads
Green roofs
Urban greening
Sky view factor
Cool cars
338
What is sky view?
The relative openness between buildings in an urban areas.
339
Why is the urban heat island a matter of concern?
- Excessive heat puts an increased strain on the supply of energy for cooling and air conditioning.
- Anticyclonic conditions responsible for intense urban heat island events produce higher air pollution levels.
- Higher temperatures can have sever imapcts on human health. For example in Paris in 2019, a heatwave caused highs of 42.6c, and most of the 1435 heat related deaths that year in France occured in Paris.
340
Why are cities warmer than rural areas?
- Increased albedo
- Air pollution from industries creates a 'pollution dome'
- Buildings are located close together
- Urban areas are designed to dispose of surface water quickly, reducing the potential for cooling by evaporation.
341
What is an urban canyon?
Where the street is surrounded by buildings on both side creating a canyon-like effect.
342
What is a consequence of urban canyon effect?
Air could get trapped, meaning increased heat and pollution.
343
What is the venturi effect?
Acceleration and rotation of an airmass happens when wind passes between tall buildings.
344
What is channeling?
When wind is compresses between buildings, slowing the speed, then when no long compressed, the wind speed rapidly increases.
345
Name an example of an urban canyon.
42nd Street, NYC.
346
Humidity in urban areas.
Low humidity due to a low rate of transpiration.
347
Reasons for increased temperature in urban areas.
Lower specific heat capacity (building mterials), infrared radiation (could be human activity), buildings are a barrier to wind redistributing heat and more shadows so some cooler areas.
348
Outline the characteristics of a place undergoing urban resurgence (4)- ppq.
Urban resurgence occurs when an urban area is developed following a period of decline, this may happen as a result of government policies to regenerate inner-city areas.
Gentrification and rising house prices.
An example would be New Islington, Manchester where Urban Splash built new homes called the 'Chips' building and cleaned up the canal.
349
Pros and cons of cultural and heritage quarters.
+ Tourism
+ Investment
- House price increases
350
What is post modernism?
Designed for more than just function, increased simulation.
351
What are the aspects of PMWCs?
Fragmentation
Gentrification
Simulation
Beautification
Fortification
Information
Globalisation
Decentralisation
Privatisation
352
What are edge cities?
Located on periphery of main cities but are cities in their own functioning right.
E.g. Anaheim, LA, California
353
Pros and cons of edge cities.
- Increased car ownership
- Doughnut effect in the actual cities
- Segregation
+ Increased job opportunities
+ Highly accessible
+ Facilitate trade as usually clsoe to airports
354
What are fortress landscapes?
Quasi public space, looks public but is not.
E.g. gated developments
355
Pros and cons of fortress landscapes.
- Segregation
- Inequality
+ Highly protected
+ Reduced crime
