Water Flashcards
1
Q
Hard Water
A
A water that will not easily form a lather with soap
due to the presence of Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ ions in solution
2
Q
Temporary Hardness
A
Can be removed by boiling the water
due to Ca(HCO₃)₂ , becomes CaCO₃ on heating, leads to blocked pipes
3
Q
Permanent Hardness
A
not removed by boiling the water, caused by CaSO₄ or MgSO₄
4
Q
Methods of removing water hardness
A
- distillation
- washing soda
- ion exchange
- boiling (only works for temp. hardness)
5
Q
Water treatment
A
- screening
- flocculation
- sedimentation
- filtration
- chlorination
- fluoridation
- pH adjustment
6
Q
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D)
A
the amount of dissolved oygen consumed by biological action when a sample of water is kept at 20°C in the dark for 5 days
7
Q
Hardness in water
A
Calcium + Magnesium ions mix with soap and form a scum. Modern detergents do not contain soap so will form a lather even with hard water
8
Q
Advantages of hard water
A
- provides calcium for teeth and bones
- nicer taste
- good for brewing, and for tanning
9
Q
Disadvantages of hard water
A
- blocks pipes, leaves scale on kettles
- wastes soap
- produces scum
10
Q
Removing water hardness
A
- distillation
- using washing soda
- ion exchange resin
11
Q
Distillation
A
evaporating off the water (leaves the dissolves salts behind). The condensed water will no longer contain the salts and be ‘soft.’
12
Q
Using washing soda
A
Hydrated sodium carbonate Na₂ CO₃. IOH₂O (washing soda) removes hardness from water and allows it to lather more easily with soap
13
Q
Using washing soda equation
A
Ca + Na₂ CO₃ -> CaCO₃ + 2Na+
CaCO₃ is soluble in water
14
Q
Ion exchange resin
A
-Pass water through ion exchange resin
-Cation exchange swaps ions that cause hardness
(Ca²⁺ + 2RNa -> R₂Ca + 2Na⁺) (R represents the resin)
-mixed-bed ion-exchange resin removes all ions from water (Water in deionised and cannot be hard)
-Contains 1) Cation exchange (to remove + ions) and
RH⁺ Na⁺ -> RNa + H⁺ 2)Anion exchange (to remove -ions)
ROH + Cl⁻ -> RCl + OH⁻
15
Q
Calculating Water Hardness
A
in hardback
16
Q
Water Pollution - dissolved oxygen
A
- Dissolved oxygen in rivers, lakes, sea -> vital for survival of fish + other forms of life
- Solubility of oxygen in water -> low, depends on temp of water
- When organic waste discharged into water, bacteria + organisms present in water provided w/ nutrients -> cause organisms to multiply
- Organisms break down waste -> carbon dioxide + water -> use up oxygen dissolved in water
organic matter + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water
- Dissolved oxygen used up by bacteria may not be replaced fast enough by more oxygen from air dissolving in water
17
Q
Pollution
A
release of substances into environment that damage the environment
18
Q
- screening
A
- wire mesh
- removes large solids + floating debris (twigs, plastics, etc)
19
Q
- flocculation
A
- flocculating agent (flocculant), usually, aluminium sulphate, added
- makes smaller suspended solids coagulate/stick together in large clumps
- makes them sink faster in the sedimentation tank
20
Q
- settlement
A
- large tanks
- water gases is at bottom, rises slowly to top at <2m/hr
- particles settle to bottom
- 90%+ of suspended solids removed at this stage
21
Q
- filtration
A
- large beds of sand
- removes remaining suspended solids
- sand supported on layer of gravel
- sand cleaned regularly
- water now clear, but may contain harmful bacteria
22
Q
- chlorination
A
- Cl₂ gas added
- sterilises water
- v. small quantities (0.2-0.5 ppm)
- controlled carefully
- monitored by bacteriological exam of water
23
Q
- fluoridation
A
- NaF pr H₂SiF added (hexafluorosilicic acid)
- Added by law -> helps reduce dental decay by strengthening enamel
- small quantities -> ~1ppm
24
Q
- pH adjustment
A
- optimum level between 7-9
- too acidic -> damage to pipes
- corrected by addition of Ca(OH)₂ (lime) to raise pH
- If v. hard water, softened by addition of Na₂CO₃ which is a base
- Too basic corrected by addition of dilute H₂SO₄ to lower pH
25
Excess - flocculation
excess aluminium sulfate affects taste + causes corrosion of pipes
26
Excess - chlorination
too much chlorine, unpleasant taste + smell
27
Excess - fluroidation
excess fluoride, gives rise to condition which causes staining of teeth (fluorosis)
28
Excess - pH adjustment
- calcium hydroxide added must be controlled, too much affects taste
- excess sulfuric acid, corrosion in pipes
29
chemicals
- Aluminium sulfate
- Chlorine
- Fluorine compound eg. sodium fluoride
- Calcium hydroxide
- Sodium carbonate
- Sulfuric acid
30
Purpose - Aluminium sulfate
Coagulation of small suspended particles
31
Purpose - Chlorine
Sterilise water (kill microorganisms)
32
Purpose - Fluorine compound eg. sodium fluroide
Prevents teeth decay
33
Purpose - Calcium hydroxide
Raise pH
34
Purpose - Sodium carbonate
Soften water
35
Purpose - Sulfuric acid
Lower pH
36
Excess - Aluminium sulfate
taste affected
| corrosion of pipes
37
Excess - Chlorine
taste + smell affected
38
Excess - Fluorine compound
staining of teeth
39
Excess - Calcium hydroxide
hardness of water
40
Excess - Sodium carbonate
taste affected
41
Excess - Sulfuric acid
corrosion of pipes
42
B.O.D test
- Carried out by completely filling 2 bottles w/ water to be tested
- Measurement of dissolved oxygen carried out immediately in one bottle so oxygen content does not increase (photosynthesis of plant material)
43
oxygen in water
- Dissolved from air into water
- Low solubility in water
- Temp inversely affects solubility
44
3 main types of water pollution
eutrophication
organic waste
heavy metals
45
eutrophication
1- Enrichment with nutrients (fertilisers/nitrates/phosphates)
2- Due to runoff from land/pollution/dispersion in water/absorption by plants
3- Rapid growth of plants (algae) on surface/algal blooms formed
4-Light blocked from plants below surface
5- Decay by bacteria of algae, algal blooms/inc in bacteria
6- DIssolved oxygen depleted (lowered, used up), oxygen level falls
7-- Fish levels reduced or killed off
46
discharge of organic waste
1- Domestic sewage, slurry, silage effluent, effluent from food processing factories, milk, industrial waste, etc
2- Micro-organisms feed
3- Waste is broken down, O₂ used up (organic matter + O₂ ->CO₂ + H₂O)
4- O₂ used up, reducing levels of fish + possibly killing off fish life
5- O₂ gone, anaerobic bacteria take over, river will smell due to presence of by-product, Hydrogen Sulphide H₂S
47
heavy metals
1-Some heavy metal ions known to be cumulative poisons
2- metal ions
3- The concentration of heavy metal ions can be measured using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)
4-Heavy metals removed from water by precipitation reactions, eg. lead reacts w/ HCl to form an insoluble precipitate that fall out of solution
Pb²⁺ + 2HCl -> PbCl₂ + 2H⁺
5- The Eu sets limits on the conc of certain species in water
48
Metal Ions
Lead (Pb²⁺)
Mercury (Hg²⁺)
Cadmium (Cd²⁺)
49
Lead (Pb²⁺) - source, harmful effects
Old plumbing + paints
Damage to nervous system
50
Mercury (Hg²⁺) - source, harmful effects
Industrial effluent
Birth defects
51
Cadmium (Cd²⁺) - source, harmful effects
Discarded batteries
Carcinogenic
52
Sewage treatment stages
- Primary treatment (physical)
- Secondary tretment (biological)
- Tertiary treatment (chemical)
53
Primary treatment (pysical stage)
1- Incoming sewage is screened to remove debris and non-biodegradable material
2- Passes into large deep sedimentation (settlement) tanks where about 50% of suspended solids + about 33% of BOD removed
3- Liquid on top passed onto to secondary treatment
54
Secondary treatment (biological stage)
- Incoming sewage from 1st stage of treatment passed into aeration tanks where mechanical stirrers aerate it
- Allows aerobic bacteria + other micro-organisms to decompose solid matter into harmless sludge called Activated Sludge
- Sewage flows into settling tanks, sludge can be reused, or recycled to make methane
- ~95% of BOD removed
55
Tertiary treatment (chemical stage)
- When liquid passes out of second round of settling, it is clean + inoffensive, may contain compounds of nitrate + phosphate
- Phosphates from washing powders + washing up liquids, and nitrates from organic material in sewage
- Must be removed before water discharged into raver as could cause eutrophication
56
Phosphate removal
- alluminium sulphate added, aluminium phosphate precipirates out
- Iron (III) chloride added, iron (III) phosphate precipitates out
- Lime may also be used
- Insoluble phosphate compounds allowed to settle out before discharge into waterway
57
Nitrate removal
Difficult + expensive as nitrogen may be present in forms NH₃, NO₂₋, NO₃₋, organic compounds containing N
Denitrifying bacteria
58
Instrumental methods of water analysis
- AAS (heavy metals)
- pH sensor
- Colorimetry
59
Principle of colorimetry
Amount of light absorbed by a coloured solution is proportional to conc of solution
60
Colorimeter
Device used to test concentration of solution by measuring its absorbance of a specific wavelength of light
61
Using a colorimeter
- Diff soltions must be made + a control (usually mix of distilled water and another solution) is first filled into a cuvette
- Placed inside colorimeter to calibrate machine
- After calibrated, use to find densities and/or conc of other solutions
62
Colorimetry
in hardback
63
Principle
1. If solution is coloured, then intensity of colour is proportional to conc
2. % of light absorbed by coloured solution in colorimeter is proportional to conc
64
Processes
- Light of particular wavelength is passed thru number of samples of known concentration
- Graph of absorbance against conc is plotted
- Absorbance of unknown is noted + using graph, conc of unknown can be found
65
Uses
Analyses: lead in water, fertilisers in water (Eg. nitrates + phosphates)
66
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
1. White light passed thru gaseous sample of element, will have specific frequencies removed from it
2. Emission spectrum is coloured lines on black bg, while absorption spectrum is black lines on a coloured bg
3. Technique used to determine conc of elements
67
Atomic Absorption Spectra
Identifying elements
Concentration of lements
Concentration of heavy metals in water
68
What happens in an AAS?
- White light is passed through (river water)
- Elements in water (eg. Pb, Hg will absorb certain characteristic wavelengths of light)
- Amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to conc of element in sample
69
ON what principle does an AAS work?
-Every element:
| absorbs a particular wavelength of light, amount of light absorbed is proportional to concentration of the element
70
Experiment: water hardness
```
indicator used +
function of buffer solution
```
-erichrome black t indicator
71
Experiment: water hardness end point colour change
goes from wine red to dark blue
72
calculating water hardness
Use Va x Ma .... formula
Get Ma, then turn mol/L intro mg/L (ppm)
73
what is ppm?
mg/L
74
homologous series edta is a member of
carboxylic acids
75
Experiment: water hardness
solution added before titration proceeds + purpose
- pH 10 buffer solution
- added before titration proceeds
- keeps the pH at about 10, ensuring necessary conditions for effective operation of indicator are maintained
76
Experiment: water hardness - rectifying splash of solution up side of conical flask + why
side of flask washed down with d.i. water
-doesn't affect concentration of reactants in flask as it contains no ions
77
how to use ion exchange resin
- pass water through resin to replace positive ions (Ca²⁺ / Mg²⁺) with hydrogen ions (H⁺)
- negative ions replaced with hydroxyl ions (OH⁻)
- H⁺ and OH⁻ ions combine to form water
78
how suspended solids are removed from a water sample + weighed
- filter known volume through weighted filter paper
- dry filter paper
- reweigh and find increase (mass of suspended solids)
79
how to determine if water contained temp hardness
- boil the water
| - scale as a result of boiling indicates temp hardness
80
how boiling removes temp hardness caused by presence of calcium hydrogencarbonate
- calcium hydrogen carbonate Ca(HCO₃)₂ decomposes /converted to calcium carbonate CaCO₃
- a precipitate is formed
81
Experiment: water hardness - effect of boiling the water
the titre would be smaller as boiling removes temp hardness
82
purpose of tertiary sewage treatment
- remove nitrates (nitrogen compounds)
- remove phosphates (phosphorous compounds)
(-prevent algal blooms/eutrophication )
83
processes in primary treatment of sewage
- screening
- passing over grit channels (traps)
- settlement (sedimentation)
84
explain how high nitrate levels can result in a reduction in the dissolved oxygen content of lakes and rivers
- causes rapid growth of water plants (algae)
- decay of these plants by aerobic microorganisms uses up oxygen
- surface plants block light preventing photosynthesis
85
water of crystallisation experiment - primary standard reagent which could have been used to standardise the HCL solution
anhydrous sodium carbonate
86
water of crystallisation experiment - suitable indicator, colour change,
methyl orange
yellow to red
87
water of crystallisation experiment - why not more than 1-2 drops of indicator should be used
methyl orange is a weak acid
88
describe the correct procedure for rinsing the burette before filling it with the solution to deliver + describe filling it
rinse with deionised water
rinse with solution
- use funnel, pour in at top, take meniscus into account
- ensure area below tap is filled
89
why is it important to fill the part below the tap of the burette?
air will be displaced by solution
90
describe procedure for weighing + making up solution from hydrated sodium carbonate crystals
- weigh on clock glass using electronic balance
- transfer solution to beaker + rinse clock glass with d.i water using wash bottle to ensure all is transferred
- dissolve in d.i water
- transfer to volumetric flask using funnel + rinse with d.i water to ensure all is transferred
- add d.i water to up to near mark on flask
- add final amount using dropper, taking meniscus into account
- stopper, invert several times
91
describe procedure for washing the pipette and using it to measure the solution
-rinse with d.i water, followed by solution
- fill up to mark with pipette filler taking meniscus into account
- transfer to flask with tip against side of flask to avoid splashing
92
three precautions with burette that should be taken in order to ensure an accurate measurement
- vertical/read at eye level
- add dropwise using dropper near end-point
- rough titration first
93
sodium carbonate crystals, is not a primary standard but anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) may be used as a primary standard. Why is this the case?
- Na₂CO₃ is pure, stable, anhydrous (not hydrated), no water loss
- solution of exact concentration can be made, no need to standardise by titration, any opposite point for sodium carbonate crystals
94
why a water sample could have high pH
-very hard due to running over limestone or subject to intense photosynthetic activity due to presence of algae
95
why a water sample could have low pH
- water is acidic/peaty
| - organic material decomposes to form acidic substances
96
suggest a way to determine if a water supply contained temp hardness
- boil water
| - scum as a result of boiling indicates temp hardness
97
how does boiling remove any temp hardness, caused by presence of calcium hydrogencarbonate Ca(HCO₃ )₂ , in a water sample?
calcium hydrogen carbonate decomposes / converted to calcium carbonate
98
harmful effects of eutrophication
excessive plant growth / algal bloom / oxygen depletion / fish kill
99
causes of eutrophication
fertilizer run-off / silage run-off / slurry run-off
100
why is there concern about lead (Pb²⁺) in drinking water?
lead is toxic
101
how does temporary hardness arise in rainwater flowing over limestone?
- rain water acidic due to dissolved carbon dioxide
| - rain water reacts with limestone to form calcium hydrogen carbonate
102
balanced equation of formation of limescale when water is boiled
Ca(HCO₃)₂ --> CaCO₃ + H₂O + CO₂
103
explain in words how water with temp hardness is deionised using cation-exchange resin and anion-exchange resin
- two hydrogen ions from cation-exchange resin replace a Ca²⁺/cations in water
- hydroxide/hydroxyl ion from anion-exchange resin replaces a HCO₃⁻/anions
hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions combine to form water
104
suggest a reason why a sample of water that was boiled and filtered would have a lower ppm CaCO₃
temporary hardness removed
105
problem of too low free chlorine level
infection / more viruses
106
problem of too high free chlorine level
taste impaired / unpleasant smell / skin irritation
107
how hard water is caused + how it wastes soap
- presence of Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ ions (calcium and magnesium ions)
| - soap react with Ca and Mg ions to give scum
108
why is water pollution by heavy metal ions a cause of concern?
danger to health (poisonous/toxic)
109
describe how the BOD was reduced by about 30% in primary sewage treatment
-removal of solids by screening and settlement
110
explain the processes by which the BOD was further reduced in secondary sewage treatment
- digestion/decomposition
- aerobic/aeration
- activated sludge
111
methods of removing all of the hardness in a water sample
- distillation
- ion exchange resin
- washing soda
112
the chemical that is the main component of scale
calcium carbonate (CaCO₃)
113
describe how suspended solids are removed in water treatment
- settlement
- flocculation
- decanting/allow water to overflow
- filtration
114
problems if pH of water supply outside range of 6-8
damage to pipes
tooth decay
hardness
115
nutrients that cause eutrophication
nitrates, phosphates
116
how student could determine total dissolved solids in water
| expressed in ppm
- evaporate known volume to dryness
- in weighed container (dish,etc)
- cool, reweigh and find increase (mass of solids)
-express mass in mg/L
117
formula of substance that causes temp hardness
Ca(HCO₃)₂
118
formula of substance that causes perm hardness
CaSO₄ or MgSO₄
119
how hard water due to Ca(HCO₃)₂ is softened by ion-exchange
each calcium ion (Ca²⁺) replaced by 2 sodium ions (Na⁺) from resin
2RNa + Ca(HCO₃)₂ --> 2NaHCO₃ + R₂Ca
120
what is meant by flocculation
clumping of suspended particles in the water
121
what is free chlorine?
chlorine available as oxidising agnet
122
property of water that makes it useful in human body as medium in which chemical reactions occur + allows it to become polluted or contaminated easily
good solvent
| polar
123
elimination reaction
- dehydration of an alcohol is an example
- In this reaction, a larger alcohol molecule reacts to form a smaller alkene molecule and an even smaller water molecule
- change in structure is from tetrahedral to planar
124
dehydration of ethanol
ethanol is dehydrated to ethene
reaction is used in prep of ethene
125
reaction conditions for elimination reactions
heat
| aluminium oxide catalyst
126
unit of BOD
ppm
127
reaction between caco3 and bcl
CaCo3 + 2HCl --> CaCl2 + H2CO3
