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ECO3B: Managing Conservation > W9: L31 = Spatial Ecology [Landscape Management] (Dr. Jolene) > Flashcards

W9: L31 = Spatial Ecology [Landscape Management] (Dr. Jolene) Flashcards

1
Q

“Let us not be influenced by the weather of the day, but rather the climate of the era” in terms of conserving biodiversity?

A
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2
Q

Biodiversity conservation THEN & NOW overtime? (3)

A
  • THEN, biodiversity conservation was all about nature protection through the management of protected areas.
  • “Rio Earth Summit” conference occurred and view on biodiversity conservation shifted.
  • AFTER, biodiversity conservation falls within the socio-economic realm (considering people now & not just nature) & enduring persistence of all facets of biodiversity.
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3
Q

Biodiversity according to Noss (1990)?

A

= structure, function & composition of plants and animals at various realms going from the genetic, population, community & landscape.

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4
Q

Genetic structure?

A

= structure & mutation of genome, which then determines the function & composition over time.

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5
Q

Population structure?

A

= does different things & functions in different ways (life stages).

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6
Q

Community structure?

A

=

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7
Q

Noss (1990) summary?

A
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8
Q

Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011-2020)?

A

= set the scene for the decades of biodiversity.

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9
Q

Aichi Biodiversity Targets attributes? (4)

A
  • Mentioned strategies goals A-E.
  • 20 targets with strategy goals (available online).
  • You will not be expected to regurgitate the strategy goals.
  • Take home message.
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10
Q

Take home for Aichi Biodiversity Targets?

A

Aimed to save biodiversity & enhance its benefits.

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11
Q

Why didn’t any of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets happen/come to pass? (6)

A
  • Lack of clearly defined metrics to measure progress (target 11 was partially met)
  • Countries needed to devise their own National Biodiversity Strategies.
  • Goals were not met globally.
  • Some targets were met on a national scale.
  • Countries that are less developed are more unable to meet the needs/targets.
  • Problems arose from measuring, monitoring & reporting finances.
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12
Q

Then came…Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) attributes? (6)

A
  • Signed by 190 countries (2022).
  • Greater level of detail & measurable targets.
  • 4 long term goals (A-D) (2050).
  • 23 Targets.
  • Greater emphasis on indigenous communities & local knowledge.
  • Greater commitment from business sector.
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13
Q

KMGBF stands for?

A

Kumning-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.

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14
Q

Goal A?

A

= focused on ensuring that the integrity, connectivity & resilience of all ecosystems are maintained, enhanced or restored, increasing the area of natural ecosystems by 2050 & that genetic diversity is maintained, thus safeguarding adaptive potential of wild & domesticated species.

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15
Q

Goal B?

A

= ensuring that biodiversity, ecosystem functions & services are valued, maintained & enhanced for sustainable development by 2050.

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16
Q

Goal C?

A

= focused on ensuring that genetic resources are shared fairly & equitably with indigenous peoples & local communities, and that traditional knowledge is protected according to agreed access & benefit-sharing instruments.

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17
Q

Goal D?

A

= focuses on implementation of financial resources, capacity-building technical & scientific cooperation that are equitably accessible, especially to developing countries, progressively closing the biodiversity finance gap of 700 billion dollars per year.

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18
Q

Target 1 out of 23 (focus on this one)?

A

= ensure that all areas are under participatory, integrated & biodiversity inclusive spatial planning and/or effective management processes addressing land- & sea-use change, to bring the loss of areas of high biodiversity importance, including ecosystems of high ecological integrity, close to zero by 2030, while respecting the rights of indigenous peoples & local communities.

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19
Q

NBA stands for?

A

National Biodiversity Areas.

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20
Q

Conservation landscape in SA: Kindly explain the different conservation landscapes on the maps in relation to rates of habitat loss (Slides 12-16)?

A
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21
Q

What are the key drivers of the rates of habitat loss? (2)

A
  • Expanding croplands.
  • Settlement.
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22
Q

How do we assess if something is under threat?

A

By using the types of conservation areas (IUCN categories).

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23
Q

IUCN stands for?

A

International Union for Conservation of Nature.

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24
Q

Types of conservation areas? (7)

A
  • Category Ia.
  • Category Ib.
  • Category II.
  • Category III.
  • Category IV.
  • Category V.
  • Category VI.
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25
Q

Category Ia?

A

= strict nature reserve.

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26
Q

Category Ib?

A

= wilderness area.

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27
Q

Category II?

A

= national park.

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28
Q

Category III?

A

= natural monument or feature.

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29
Q

Category IV?

A

= habitat or species management area.

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30
Q

Category V?

A

= protected landscape or seascape.

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31
Q

Category VI?

A

= protected area with sustainable use of natural resources.

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32
Q

How do we put land in terms of those conservation areas?

A

We use different kinds of conservation planning.

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33
Q

Kinds of conservation planning? (6)

A
  • Systematic Conservation Planning.
  • Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation.
  • Evidence-Based Practice.
  • Structured Decision Making.
  • Strategic Foresight.
  • Systemic Review.
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34
Q

The Problem?

A

You have a conservation landscape that experiences external pressures (eg, policies) & internal pressures (eg, mining, farming, etc) & needs to be conserved.

Protected areas & potential areas are then put in place to do so but there is a challenge that arises.

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35
Q

What is the challenge?

A

To reconcile (spatial) needs of other land users (i.e., mining, forestry, local communities & their access to resources) with those of conservation.

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36
Q

So how do we approach/solve the challenge? (2)

A
  • Systematic conservation/biodiversity planning.
  • Redress the manner in which we approach conservation.
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37
Q

PA stands for?

A

Protected Area.

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38
Q

Evolution of Conservation Planning in SA (and worldwide)? (5)

A

Adhoc approaches
|
Scoring approaches
|
Planning for representation
|
Planning for persistence
|
Planning for implementation

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39
Q

Planning for representation?

A

= involves biodiversity patterns.

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40
Q

Planning for persistence?

A

= involves biodiversity patterns & ecosystem processes.

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41
Q

Conservation assessments include? (2)

A
  • Planning for representation.
  • Planning for persistence.
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42
Q

Conservation planning includes? (1)

A

Planning for implementation.

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43
Q

Planning for representation, persistence & implementation attributes? (4)

A
  • Consider reserve design principles (landscape pattern).
  • Provide multiple options to facilitate management & practice in real landscapes (no single best solution).
  • Consider biodiversity PROCESSES in addition to species numbers.
  • “Enduring” biodiversity conservation with improved links to other land-use stakeholders.
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44
Q

Systematic conservation planning attributes? (4)

A
  • Systematic process.
  • Explicitly considers a “conservation landscape”.
  • Explicitly considers financial costs for conservation.
  • Awareness of other stakeholders.
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45
Q

Systematic process?

A

= transparent & is thus defensible against criticism.

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46
Q

How does Systematic Conservation Planning explicitly considers a conservation landscape? (3)

A
  • PA networks.
  • Incorporate ecosystem processes.
  • Conservation under global change scenarios.
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47
Q

Explicitly considers financial costs for conservation?

A

= involves weight decision-making by land prices or management effort (eg, Reserve selection principles).

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48
Q

Ways in which awareness of other stakeholders is implemented? (3)

A
  • Minimising costs for conservation (threats, biodiversity pressures) & lost opportunity costs for other industry.
  • Increasing support for conservation decisions.
  • Promoting enduring conservation actions.
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49
Q

Margules & Pressey (2000)?

A

= origin story for Systematic Conservation Planning.

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50
Q

Steps outlined in Margules & Pressey (2000)? (6)

A
  • Compile data.
  • Set conservation targets.
  • Assess existing PAs.
  • Select new conservation areas.
  • Implement conservation action (failed to do).
  • Maintain & monitor.
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51
Q

Knight et al. (2006) attributes? (5)

A
  • Conservation assessment IS NOT the same as Conservation planning.
  • Implementation crisis.
  • “Planning for implementation”.
  • Operational model.
  • But it’s too simple.
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52
Q

Operational model?

A

= simplified conceptualisation of processes for implementing conservation action.

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53
Q

Revised Conservation Planning Process attributes? (3)

A
  • Other paper ya Knight et al. (2006) added onto Margules & Pressey (2000).
  • Non-linear as you have to keep going back again.
  • Consider the “Process, Pattern & Scale”.
54
Q

Revised Conservation Planning? (9)

A
  • Scope & cost.
  • Identify & involve stakeholders.
  • Identify goals.
  • Compile data.
  • Set conservation targets.
  • Assess existing PAs.
  • Select new conservation areas.
  • Implement conservation action.
  • Maintain & monitor.
55
Q

Compile data step attributes? (6)

A
  • Measure & map biodiversity.
  • Biodiversity is complex.
  • Availability of adequate data is limiting.
  • Therefore, biodiversity surrogates are used.
  • Debate about the best surrogate for biodiversity.
  • You can use 2 theories/hypothesis, but eventually you’ll need expert involvement.
56
Q

Use for biodiversity surrogates?

A

To plan for conservation in absence of complete knowledge.

57
Q

Surrogates attributes? (3)

A
  • Proxies for spatial pattern/process of broader biodiversity in the landscape.
  • We “assume” unmapped features are accounted for.
  • Not typically used as a shortcut to describe patterns & processes.
58
Q

Debates about what the best surrogate for biodiversity should? (3)

A
  • Fine-scale species distribution/locality records of better known taxa (birds & mammals).
  • Broad scale landscape features (as it’s easily mappable).
  • Scale of assessment for implementation.
59
Q

You can use 2, but eventually you need expert involvement, why?

A

It’s because the algorithm doesn’t replace expert judgement in compiling & contextualising biodiversity data in socio-economic, ecological context.

60
Q

Uses of Indicator species? (3)

A
  • Indicate the extent of anthropogenic influence.
  • Track population changes in other species (i.e., predator-prey relationships).
  • Locate areas of high species richness (HELPS DESIGN RESERVES).
61
Q

How do indicator species indicate the extent of anthropogenic influence?

A

Through showing:

  • Sensitivity to a particular environmental problem/disturbance.
  • Ecological condition.
62
Q

How does Indicator species 3rd use help in designing reserves?

A

By using well-known taxonomic groups to make predictions about less well-known groups.

63
Q

Types of surrogate species? (4)

A
  • Indicator species.
  • Umbrella species.
  • Flagship species.
  • Focal species.
  • Keystone species.
64
Q

Role of Indicator species?

A

To monitor the effects of management actions/disturbances on other species/components of the systems that are too difficult/too costly to monitor directly.

65
Q

Conservation planning usefulness of Indicator species? (2)

A
  • Threat detection/avoidance.
  • Dynamic monitoring.
66
Q

Eg of Indicator species?

A

Amphibians.

67
Q

Umbrella species?

A

= species where its conservation indirectly benefits other organisms in the ecosystem.

68
Q

Umbrella species attributes? (2)

A
  • Often have large habitat range.
  • Conservation goal is to protect a type of habitat or community of species.
  • Differ from keystone species.
69
Q

Eg of an Umbrella species?

A

Elephants.

70
Q

Umbrella species VS Keystone species?

A
  • Umbrella species
    = primarily used in conservation efforts to protect a larger habitat, which will in turn protect other species within that habitat.
  • Keystone species
    = important in maintaining the structure & function of the ecosystem, there its removal may lead to ecological collapse.
71
Q

Flagship species?

A

= species that draw public attention & funding for conservation efforts.

72
Q

Flagship species attributes? (2)

A
  • Raise awareness about the conservation agenda.
  • Generate sympathy of the public for nature.
73
Q

Eg of a flagship species?

A

Giant pandas.

74
Q

Focal species?

A

= species that are selected based on their specific traits/needs which make them useful in understanding/addressing a specific conservation issue.

75
Q

Focal species attributes? (2)

A
  • Priority species for conservation.
  • Red Listed species, endangered, vulnerable, etc.
76
Q

Eg of a Focal species?

A

Bumblebees (important as pollinators in agriculture & wildflower ecosystems).

77
Q

Keystone species?

A

= species that is significantly important for ecosystem function.

78
Q

Keystone species attributes? (3)

A
  • Keystone species IS NOT the same as a Surrogate species.
  • Its impact on the community/ecosystem is disproportionately larger than its abundance.
  • Difficult to test & determine whether a species is a “keystone”.
79
Q

Why is it difficult to test & determine whether a species is a “keystone”?

A

It’s due to the context dependency of the species’ community importance.

80
Q

2 Kinds of surrogates used in conservation biology?

A
  • Surrogate species.
  • Environmental surrogates.
81
Q

Surrogate species?

A

= species that are used as proxies to assess the health of an ecosystem or guide conservation efforts.

82
Q

Environmental surrogates?

A

= non-biological indicators used to represent environmental conditions..

83
Q

Environmental surrogates attributes? (6)

A
  • Non-biological indicators can provide information about an ecosystem’s overall state without having to measure it directly.
  • Focuses on environmental conditions/factors.
  • Include more of the processes than the patterns.
  • Important for ecosystem process modelling.
  • Assumption?
  • Data types?
84
Q

Surrogate species VS Environmental surrogates?

A
  • Surrogate species
    = focuses on biological entities (species).
  • Environmental surrogates
    = focuses on environmental conditions/factors.
85
Q

What is assumed about environmental surrogates?

A

Assume that different types of land will correlate with the variations in both the abiotic & biotic characteristics that influence species distribution (i.e., where species are found & how they thrive).

86
Q

Data types often used by environmental surrogates? (6)

A
  • Satellite-derived vegetation.
  • Habitat maps.
  • Existing vegetation maps.
  • Soil.
  • Geology maps.
  • Expert knowledge on important areas in the landscape.
87
Q

Satellite-derived vegetation?

A

= information about vegetation type, cover, health & distribution that is obtained using remote sensing technologies from satellites that orbit the Earth.

88
Q

Habitat VS Vegetation?

A
  • Habitat
    = encompasses all living (animals, plants) & non-living (soil, air, water) factors affecting organisms.
  • Vegetation
    = only focuses on plant communities.
89
Q

Ecosystem process modelling attributes? (2)

A
  • Fixed spatial features that represent ecosystem processes (like river movement corridors).
  • Assumption?
90
Q

Assumption of ecosystem process modelling?

A

That conserving large intact areas of habitat also protects known & unknown ecosystem processes & services.

91
Q

Limitations of Environmental surrogates? (9)

A
  • Might be spatially biased.
  • Biased towards charismatic species, in SA there are huge gaps around fungi, algae & bryophytes.
  • Little testing of assumptions underlying the use of surrogates.
  • Unknown cumulative error produced by overlaying many different species distribution maps.
  • Single-species surrogates can’t ensure the conservation of all co-occurring species.
  • Small patches of important habitats are not often represented by satellite data.
  • Patchy distribution of species is within classes, therefore the successes of “class” surrogacy for species may vary place by place.
  • Human delineation of habitat is often not relevant for species.
  • Different weighing schemes, input variables & different classification procedures may produce totally different environmental domains (same area, different researcher).
92
Q

Why can’t “Single-species surrogates ensure the conservation of all co-occurring species”?

A

It’s because some species are limited by ecological factors that are not relevant to the umbrella species (ie, aren’t able to meet the ecological requirements like large habitat size to be considered an umbrella species), which may lead to differences in how diversity is spatially arranged across different taxa.

93
Q

Eg of patches of important habitats that re not often represented by satellite data?

A

Important ephemeral habitats.

94
Q

How is human delineation of habitat often not relevant for species?

A

By the lack of testing to test congruence/similarity with species (“armchair environmentalist”). This results in arbitrary hard line dividing of classes (i.e., hard line dividing of classes is done without a rational basis/on a whim).

95
Q

Given that Environmental surrogates have these limitations, what’s the best method/how can they compensate?

A

By using a combination of species & environmental datasets, guided by expert judgement, in ecological & socio-economic contexts.

96
Q

Reserve requirements for systematic conservation planning? (2)

A
  • Representativeness.
  • Persistence.
97
Q

Representativeness?

A

= where a reserve contains a sample of the full variety of biodiversity (all levels of organisation).

98
Q

Persistence?

A

= long term survival of species & landscape elements by maintaining processes.

99
Q

Factors to consider in Reserve design? (4)

A
  • Size.
  • Connectivity.
  • Replication.
  • Boundaries.
100
Q

What factors/measures related to the
points below are important to consider
when designing the configuration of
protected areas to promote persistence? Points below are:

  • Size.
  • Shape.
  • Directional alignment.
  • Replication, spacing & connectivity.
  • Disturbance regimes.

Palesa, before you answer the questions related to this, what is the question asking of you? (3)

A
  • The question is asking you to explore and explain how different factors or attributes of protected areas (like their size, shape, and other characteristics) contribute to their effectiveness in ensuring the long-term survival (persistence) of species or ecosystems. It wants you to think about the design of these areas and how each factor influences ecological outcomes.
  • Here’s a breakdown of what the question is asking:

(i) Size: How the physical size of a protected area can influence species survival, biodiversity, and ecological processes.

(ii) Shape: How the shape of the area might affect edge effects, interior habitat quality, and species movement.

(iii) Directional Alignment: How the orientation or alignment of the protected area may affect species migration, ecological flows, and exposure to external threats like climate change.

(iv) Replication, Spacing & Connectivity: How having multiple protected areas that are spaced out or connected by corridors can impact species movement, genetic diversity, and resilience to disturbances.

(v) Disturbance Regimes: How natural or human-induced disturbances (like fires, floods, or human activities) are considered in the design of protected areas to ensure ecosystems remain resilient and adaptable.

  • What the question wants you to do:

(1) Think critically about each of these factors and explain why they are important.

(2) Discuss how each factor affects the persistence of species and ecosystems within the protected areas.

(3) Consider the ecological and practical implications of the design decisions for protected areas.

101
Q

Explain the factor of Size?

A
102
Q

Explain the factor of Shape?

A
103
Q

Explain the factor of Directional alignment?

A
104
Q

Explain the factor of Replication, spacing & connectivity?

A
105
Q

Explain the factor of Disturbance regimes?

A
106
Q

Factors to include with new reserves? (2)

A
  • Complementarity.
  • Irreplaceability.
107
Q

Complementarity?

A

= means does the new “reserve” contain an unrepresented feature (species/landscape type/process)?

108
Q

Irreplaceability?

A

= can the area that we want to conserve (& the conservation targets it contains) be replaced by any other unit?

109
Q

Irreplaceability attributes? (2)

A
  • If high irreplaceability = “must” be kept/conserved.
  • If high replaceability = allows for wiggle room when considering lost opportunity costs & trade-offs.
110
Q

Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs)?

A

= a site that contributes significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity.

111
Q

KBAs attributes? (3)

A
  • 5 criteria to meet (meet thresholds for at least one).
  • Not protected areas & differ from protected areas.
  • “Birthed’ IBAs (could also be IBAs).
112
Q

5 Criteria for identifying KBAs?

A
  • Threatened biodiversity.
  • Geographically restricted biodiversity.
  • Ecological integrity.
  • Biological processes.
  • Irreplaceability.
113
Q

Why use these criteria?/ Uses of the criteria? (2)

A
  • Help conservationists in protecting the most important ecosystems & species at risk, at a global scale.
  • To identify areas that are of high priority for conservation efforts to ensure the persistence of biodiversity on a global scale.
114
Q

Threatened biodiversity?

A

= the area is home to species/ecosystems that are considered to be globally threatened according to the IUCN Red List.

115
Q

Eg of Threatened biodiversity?

A

A habitat that supports endangered species (giant panda) or endangered ecosystems (coral reefs) under the threat of climate change.

116
Q

Geographically restricted biodiversity?

A

= the area contains species/ecosystems with a limited distribution, i.e., they are found in specific geographic locations & are restricted to those areas.

117
Q

Eg of Geographically restricted biodiversity?

A

Islands that have species that are only found in that particular region like the Galapagos islands, which contain the Galapagos tortoises.

118
Q

Ecological integrity?

A

= the area contains ecosystems that are highly intact with minimal human disturbance.

119
Q

Eg of Ecological integrity?

A

Large, undisturbed wilderness areas like the Amazon Rainforest, which inhabits a various range of biodiversity in its natural state.

120
Q

Biological processes?

A

= the area is important for the maintenance of natural processes that are important for species survival, such as migration, feeding, breeding or hiberantion.

121
Q

Eg of Biological processes?

A

Wetlands used as stopover sites for migratory birds or spawning sites for fish species.

122
Q

Irreplaceability?

A

= the area is one where the biodiversity cannot be replaced (if site is destroyed, species/ecosystems there may face extinction).

123
Q

Eg of Irreplaceability?

A

A unique habitat that supports species with no alternative suitable habitats elsewhere, such as tropical rainforests that are home to highly specialized species.

124
Q

IBAs stands for?

A

Important Bird Areas.

125
Q

List the strategic objectives of IBAs? (6)

A
  • Strategic, integrated landscape planning.
  • Safeguard the most important sites for birds.
  • Improve habitat management in KBAs.
  • Manage data.
  • Mainstreaming.
  • Increase support through raising awareness.
126
Q

Important Bird Areas?

A

= key sites designated for bird conservation that contribute to broader biodiversity protection.

127
Q

Mainstreaming?

A

= involves incorporating environmental considerations (like biodiversity conservation) into broader economic and social policies, sectors & practices.

128
Q

Sites that are not necessarily conservation areas/protected areas? (4)

A
  • KBAs.
  • IBAs.
  • Biosphere reserves.
  • OECMs.
129
Q

OECMs stand for?

A

Other Effective area-based Conservation Measures.

130
Q

Biosphere reserves?

A

= places where wildlife, plants, and natural resources are protected, but also where local communities can live, work, and use the land in ways that don’t harm nature.

131
Q

Margules & Pressey (2000) summary?

A
132
Q

Knight et al. (2006) summary?

A

ECO3B: Managing Conservation (34 decks)

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