W8 Motor Control & Learning_1

Question 1

have a clear definition of motor learning and how it differs from motor performance

Answer 1

Motor learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in the capability to execute a motor skill as a result of practice or experience. Performance is the act of executing a motor skill at a particular time. Learning is the result of permanent changes, whereas performance is a temporary, nonpermanent change. Performance is observable, whereas learning is a construct.

Question 2

understand temporary and “relatively permanent” effects of practice variables

Answer 2

A simple method of measuring performance changes is to compare performance on a pretest (conducted prior to the practice session) with that on a posttest (conducted at the end of the practice session). This allows inferences of learning, but does not reveal the persistence of the improved performance (i.e., retention). To assess the persistent capability to perform a motor skill, a retention test must be administered. A retention test is given following a break from practice. It allows the practitioner to determine whether the change in skill level is temporary (performance) or permanent (learning).

Question 3

Apart from a retention test, name another test that examines the permanence of motor skill acquisition

Answer 3

Another test that examines the permanence of motor skill acquisition is a transfer test. The difference between a transfer test and a retention test is that a retention test assesses performance on the same task following the break, whereas a transfer test assesses performance on a similar, but different task following the break. Transfer tests measure the adaptability

Question 4

What are the 3 types of transfer and why are they important in learning research

Answer 4

The three types of transfer are positive, negative, and zero; the type depends on the direction of the transfer. Positive transfer occurs when the learning of a previous motor skill enhances the performance of another motor skill. When a previous movement experience hinders performance, negative transfer has occurred. When the previous movement experience does not change performance, then zero transfer has occurred. Practitioners should be aware of learners’ previous movement experiences because initial poor performance may be caused by negative transfer from prior experience in a similar skill.

Question 5

understand the measurement of transfer of motor skills

Answer 5

To calculate the change in original learning, subtract the performance on the first session (or trial) from the performance on the last session (or trial) of the original learning trials. To calculate retention, the percentage score, the most informative measure of retention, represents the percentage of performance that was lost (or gained) following the retention interval. To calculate the percentage score, divide the difference (To calculate the difference score, subtract the absolute retention score (absolute retention—that is, the learner’s performance immediately following the retention interval) from the last score during the acquisition phase (original learning)) score by the change in original learning and then multiply by 100 percent.

Question 6

Apart from the change in original learning, absolure retention, difference score and percentage score, name another useful retention measure

Answer 6

Another useful retention measure is the retention savings score, which reflects how much time is required to return to the same level of performance as compared to the time required to reach this level during the original practice sessions

Question 7

How can you assess the performer’s adaptability of a motor skill?

Answer 7

Transfer tests are very similar to retention tests; however, rather than assessing performance on the same motor skill, they assess performance on a similar skill or a variation of the same skill following the retention interval. Examples are examining performance at different positions for a soccer player, such as playing midfield, defender, or forward. It is useful to assess performance with varying regulatory and nonregulatory conditions. This enables the practitioner to assess not only the adaptability of the learner, but also the stability of the performance.

Question 8

Name two transfer theories and briefly explain what they suggest

Answer 8

According to the transfer-appropriate processing theory, movements or games that require similar cognitive processing can positively transfer Activities that require learners to engage in similar problem-solving strategies promote positive transfer. For instance, the strategy of faking an opponent is employed in many sports. A skilled basketball player will be much better at reading an opponent’s intentions even in a different sport, such as hockey, than someone who has not had experiences with opponents. The identical elements theory asserts that the amount and direction of transfer depend on the number of identical elements between two motor skills

Question 9

Reference transfer, what’s the benefit of game classification and name the different classes

Answer 9

The five game categories are target games; fielding and run-scoring games; net and wall games; invasion games and personal performance games. classification schemes are necessary to generalize similarities across games, thus increasing opportunities for positive transfer across games from the same classification. When teaching games, the instructor should emphasize movement concepts, principles, and strategies that will transfer from one game to another in the same classification.

Question 10

Hw do you Promoting Positive Transfer for Any Motor Skill?

Answer 10

analyze the transfer task. A good practitioner analyzes skills when designing drills and activities. Positive transfer depends on the similarities between the two tasks. These similarities can be either in the fundamental movement pattern, as proposed by the identical elements theory, or in the strategies and concepts of the tasks, as asserted by the transfer-appropriate processing theory.

Question 11

generate and interpret performance curves and explain the limitations

Answer 11

Although performance measures do not necessarily indicate motor learning at any particular point in time, however if assessed over a period of time they can provide an indication of it. Performance curves can be generated by collecting a performance measure across a period of time—for instance, the number of foul shots made in each practice session.

Question 12

There are 4 different performance curves, what are they and how are they different?

Answer 12

The most common, = negatively accelerating curve, illustrates a rapid initial rate of improvement followed by a gradual reduction. A positively accelerating curve is illustrated by small initial gains, but this rate of improvement increases with every practice session. A linear curve indicates that there is a direct relationship between the performance measure and time. S-shaped curve combines the rates of improvement found in the positively and negatively shaped curves. The learner initially takes some time to learn the motor skill. After a period of time, the learner experiences an “aha” moment and can perform the movement pattern much more successfully, similar to the positively accelerating curve. Performance then follows a gradual decline in the rate of improvement, similar to the negatively accelerating curve.

Question 13

What are the limitations of performance curves?

Answer 13

1. may falsely imply that someone has learned when they haven’t 2. may also mask learning effects when there are no observable performance changes but the learner has gained some learning 3. Individual performances may get lost when performance is averaged eg An averaged performance curve may indicate that participants have learned a motor skill very quickly, when only one person may have learned very quickly while the others showed a very small amount of improvement 4. does not provide any information about the consistency of an individual’s performance. Learning can also be assessed by how persistent the skill is and how mush effort the performers needs to expend and attention they need to dedicate to execute the skill

Question 14

Performance curves can indicate learning. There are 4 other ways that learning can be assessed eg persistence

Answer 14

Learning can also be assessed by how persistent the skill is, how mush effort the performers needs to expend and attention they need to dedicate to execute the skill. And adaptability

Question 15

Describe three types of goals and principles of goal setting.

Answer 15

Theories of motor learning and self-regulation assume that learners are goal directed. They want to achieve something. Innstructors should encourage self-determined goal setting because people tend to commit to goals they set for themselves. In general, research demonstrates that goals are most effective when they are specific, attainable, challenging, and realistic. The types of goals are outcome goals (emphasize the results of performance, often in comparison to others ), performance goals, and process goals. focus on improvement relative to one’s own performance, whereas process goals specifically emphasize particular aspects of skill execution or selected strategies

Question 16

Explain when demonstrations are effective and when they are not, and why.

Answer 16

Not effective∴Task is simple. Person already knows the task and it’s requirements. The outcome iis more important than how the movement is completed/ when the goal is problem solving. Outcome is clear and performance feedback is available eg juggling :Effective: when person acquiring new pattern of coordination (early phase of learning); where the person require a template of the movement patter; is learning a movement dequence; they are learning strategies and decision making; learning to cope with difficult emotions.

Question 17

List the pros and cons of expert and learning models.

Answer 17

Learning models have been shown to be as effective as expert models and in some cases more effective for learning. A learning model is a novice who practices the skill and receives feedback from an instructor or coach. The demonstration is of the model trying to acquire the task, receiving feedback, and then using the feedback to construct the next performance effort. Learners might identify with the learning model because of similarity in status (both are learning). novice and expert models together are more effective than either alone, likely because more cognitive effort is expended in acquiring the skill through identifying a standard (expert model), witnessing the errors of a novice (learning model), and learning how to avoid those errors. Plus there is some consensus that demonstrations by unskilled people may be more effective than those by experts. Of course, learners should have some idea about the correct movement pattern and understand that what they are observing contains errors.

Question 18

Why can simply modelling a behaviour help someone learn it?

Answer 18

Mirror neurons have been proposed as the neurological link between the observation of movement and the creation of motor commands

Question 19

Discuss the relationships between verbal instruction and both implicit and explicit learning.

Answer 19

in some situations verbal instruction may be detrimental to learning. Much motor learning is implicit, and knowing mechanical principles is not likely to assist such learning. tasks with high perceptual–motor demands or complex response requirements would benefit less from explicit instructions. In general, the results support the effectiveness of allowing learners to discover how best to achieve task goals. It seems that instructions may interfere with learning if attention is misdirected by either demonstrations or verbal instruction. Of course, this assumes that the task goal is understood and that performance feedback of some form is present in the learning situation.

Question 20

Describe guidelines for using verbal cues.

Answer 20

Magill (2017) recommended presenting only one or two instructions about what to do because learners have to remember the instructions and then perform the skill. Instructors should not exceed their charges’ attention capacity. Cues should be one to three words in length, be easily related to aspects of the skill, be used only for the most critical elementschmidt and Lee (2005, 2014) indicated that verbal information provides an initial orientation to a new skill, an overall idea or image of a movement, a means of recognizing one’s own errors (e.g., checking the wrist on a follow-through), details of how to hold an apparatus or implement, information on where and how to move in a game, cues that are most important (e.g., the seams of a baseball), and the results performers should try to achieve. A verbal phrase may simplify a rather complex movement in the tennis serve (e.g., Scratch your back with the racket) or reinforce the order of movements in the breaststroke (e.g., Arms, legs, glide). Instructors may also promote the transfer of related, previously learned movements and strategies through verbal means. Feelings that should be expected from a movement can also be conveyed (e.g., If you are stretching properly you should feel a slight pull in the calf muscle).

Question 21

Discuss attention in terms of being broad or narrow and external or internal.

Answer 21

broad width of focus—Attending to the larger context, such as the scanning the field. narrow width of focus—Attending to specific cues in the environment, such as focusing on a specific player. internal direction of focus—Attentional focus that is directed within the person, such as visualizing the movement. external direction of focus—Attentional focus that is directed in the environment, such as focusing on the putt.