Viticulture and Vinification Flashcards
1
Q
How is viticulture defined?
A
Viticulture, the study of grape growing, slowly developed in conjunction with the cultivation of the vine, as growers over time learned from instinct and observation. The grower or viticulturalist confronts decisions on vine training and pruning methods, canopy management, fertilization and irrigation, harvest dates, and disease control; and monitors the development of the vineyard in general.
2
Q
When does the annual life cycle begin for the vine?
A
The annual life cycle of the vine begins in the spring, with budbreak.
3
Q
What happens during budbreak and when does it occur?
A
During budbreak, which usually occurs in March or April, the first small shoots and leaves will break through buds left intact by winter pruning.
4
Q
When is the vine most vulnerable to frost?
A
During budbreak
5
Q
The vine’s foliage continues to develop through the early spring, and small green clusters called ________ form on the shoots by mid-April.
A
embryo bunches
6
Q
When does flowering occur on a vine?
A
Flowering occurs six to thirteen weeks after the initial budbreak, depending on the climate.
7
Q
What happens during the flowering phase of the vine?
A
During the flowering phase of the vine, the embryo bunches bloom into small flowers for about ten days, and the self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of fertilization, which leads to fruit set.
8
Q
When the vine is self-pollinating, what is the name of the process that helps lead to fruit set?
A
Fertilization
9
Q
The vine, which started “______” or “_____” watery sap from pruned canes sometime in February (in the Northern Hemisphere), will finally emerge from dormancy as the average air temperature surpasses 50°F.
A
“weeping” or “bleeding”
10
Q
Successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during fruit set—each grape is the product of _________.
A
individual fertilization
11
Q
What percent does fruit set hover around?
A
Fruit set usually hovers around 30%—the remaining embryo berries “shatter,” falling from the cluster.
12
Q
As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in ______ and _____ in sugar.
A
As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in acidity and low in sugar.
13
Q
When does veraison occur and exactly happens to the vine around that point?
A
In August, veraison (véraison) begins and the grapes begin to truly ripen, as sugars are moved from the leaf system to the fruit.
14
Q
What happens during veraison?
A
During veraison, the grapes soften and change color—turning from green to red-black or yellow-green—and acidity decreases.
15
Q
Do all varietals go through an even veraison phase in the vineyard?
A
No, while veraison swiftly affects an individual grape, it may not evenly affect a whole bunch. Some varieties, such as Zinfandel, are characterized by extremely uneven ripening, in which veraison haphazardly affects each bunch.
16
Q
When does cane ripening on the vine occur and happens during that phase?
A
Cane ripening occurs in tandem with veraison, as the stems on each shoot begin to lignify, accumulating carbohydrates to sustain the plant through the winter.
17
Q
vendange
A
harvest
18
Q
When are white grapes harvested?
A
White grapes are generally harvested before red grapes, although some white grapes destined for the specialized botrytised dessert wines or icewine may hang on the vine until late November or December.
19
Q
complete physiological ripeness
A
a concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics, the condition of the berry and its pulp, and seed lignification—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine.
20
Q
When should a grower add fertilization down and prune the vineyard?
A
Fertilization may be applied in the fall after harvest, and the vines will be pruned over the winter to prepare for next year’s growth.
21
Q
What are all the elements of climate?
A
Climate encompasses expected temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind, and other atmospheric elements, and remains relatively stable from year to year—weather is the daily manifestation of climate, and is generally responsible for vintage variation.
22
Q
For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between ____° and ____°F, with an ideal of ___°F.
A
For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between 50° and 68°F, with an ideal of 57°F.
23
Q
To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately ____°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of ____°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between ____° and ___° in both the northern and southern hemispheres.
A
To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately 70°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of 66°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between 30° and 50° in both the northern and southern hemispheres.
24
Q
One method of classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to that temperature—is the ____________ .
A
California Heat Summation Index
25
How is the California Heat Summation Index divided?
This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days.
26
How are degree days calculated?
Degree days are calculated by multiplying the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation
27
Degree Days for Region Ia
1,500-2,000° days F (850-1,111° days C)
28
Degree Days for Region 1b
2,000-2,500° days F (1,111-1389° days C)
29
Degree Days for Region II
2,500-3,000° days F (1,389-1,667° days C)
30
Degree Days for Region III
3,000-3,500° days F (1,667-1,944° days C)
31
Degree Days for Region IV
3,500-4,000° days F (1,944-2,222° days C)
32
Degree Days for Region V
4,000-4,900° days F (2,222-2,700° days C)
33
Photosynthesis
photosynthesis—in which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars
34
Sunshine is a requirement to the vine because of what process?
photosynthesis
35
What is the minimum amount of sunshine that is needed for a vine?
approximately 1,300 hours.
36
As sunshine during the growing season increases the farther one moves away from the equator, vines in the cooler climates often enjoy more sunshine than vines in the warmer climates. True or False?
True
37
Does cloud cover affect the transmission of light for photosynthesis? If not, what would it affect?
Cloud cover will not greatly impact the transmission of light for the purposes of photosynthesis, but it will affect the amount of heat the sun bestows on a vine.
38
Depending on the warmth of the climate, how many inches of rain does a vine need to produce an adequate crop?
The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant, but it still requires approximately 20-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop, depending on the warmth of the climate.
39
If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur. What will that do to the fruit?
A condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shutdown of the vine if the stress is too severe.
40
If the vine receives too much rain what will that do to the fruit?
Too much rain will not adversely affect the vine itself, but it will dilute fruit quality and create a friendly environment for fungal diseases.
41
How can the use of wind benefit the vine?
Wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air.
42
What drawbacks does having wind in the vineyard have?
At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine flowering and denude vines. In colder climates, wind chill can be especially devastating.
43
terroir
terroir, in a holistic sense, defines the complete system of the living vine. The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it.
44
macroclimate
the regional climate
45
What can be said about the macroclimate of a wine region?
Macroclimate varies in size depending on the factors affecting it: the Rheingau, on a single south-facing slope, and the Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence, are subject to single macroclimates. However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor.
46
mesoclimate
the climate of a particular vineyard.
47
What is of important on a mesoclimate?
The aspect (degree and direction of its slope) and shelter of a vineyard are essential to distinctions in mesoclimate.
48
_________ are small: one must realistically speak of several in Corton, the largest grand cru vineyard in Burgundy, whereas La Tâche has a single ________.
Mesoclimates
49
What is a smaller scale than mesoclimate
That would be microclimate, which refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy, the restricted space including all parts of the vine above the ground.
50
Techniques of canopy management have been developed to adjust the ________ of a vine, particularly in its exposure to sunshine and its eventual yield.
microclimate
51
What are some vineyard practices that are preformed in the vineyard that improve the microclimate?
Winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir.
52
Between low-fertility and high-fertility soils, which one produces better fruit?
In general, low-fertility soils produce better wines than rich soils, the latter being better suited for other types of agriculture. Conventional wisdom holds that the vine should always struggle to produce good fruit; that too much vigor results in commonplace wine.
53
What type of soil is best suited for the vine?
Well-drained, easily penetrable soils with good water-retention are desirable, as they permit the vine to dig deeply for water and minerals
54
Is heat retention of the soil important for vine?
Yes. The heat-retaining (and reflecting) character of a particular soil is also an important factor, especially in correlation with climate.
55
What does high pH in a soil do to a wine and what type of soils have high pH?
High soil pH, common in limestone-rich soils, contributes to higher acidity (low pH) in grapes, and although such soils are typically inhospitable to most agriculture, viticulture thrives.
56
What happens if a soil pH is low (soil acidity) and how can that be corrected in the vineyard?
Soil acidity (low pH) can, on the other hand, be a deterrent to viticulture. This can be countered by the application of lime.
57
Clones
Identical genetic reproductions of a single vine
58
How are clones selected for a vineyard?
They are selected for a host of different attributes in both the field and the wine: disease resistance, hardiness, yield, aromatics, structure, and color are among the qualities to consider when selecting a clone.
59
mass selection (selection massale)
Popular in Burgundy, enables the grower to select budwood for replanting from a number of vines throughout the vineyard, rather than single clones. In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate negative traits through appropriate selection—and while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained.
60
Other name for budwood selection
scion
61
Salvation came in the form of lowly American grapevine species—________ and others—that were highly resistant to the root louse (phylloxera).
Vitis riparia
62
Why would a grower put so much thought into their vine's rootstocks?
A grower may select a particular rootstock not just for its resistance to phylloxera, but also its ability to withstand other diseases and drought, its tolerance to salt and lime, and/or its effect on vine vigor. The combination of clonal and rootstock selection will have a great impact on the character and health of the vine.
63
After replanting a vineyard, how long does it take to produce suitable fruit?
3 years
64
When is vine considered mature in most European appellations?
In many European appellations, growers are prohibited from harvesting grapes for wine until the vine is at least three years old. By its sixth year, the grapevine is considered mature; shoot growth and the vine’s annual yield, in the absence of major stresses, stabilize
65
When is the root system considered mature
The root system will grow to maturity by the tenth year, although poorer soils will slow growth
66
When does the yield of a replanted vineyard begin to decline?
The yield of many commercial vineyards will begin to decline after 20 years, and vineyards are often uneconomical to maintain after 50 years of age. However, exceptional old vine plantings of a century or more of age exist, producing small yields but highly concentrated fruit. Old vine plantings of Rhône variety in Australia and Zinfandel in California are especially valued.
67
Pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine are all considered under what practice?
Vine training
68
What is the objective of vine training, which includes the processes of pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine,
To maximize the vine’s performance in local conditions and to keep its canes from touching the ground and establishing new roots.
69
Does the grape vine have a have self supporting structure?
No. The grapevine does not have a self-supporting structure, and must often be tethered to another apparatus: a tree, stake, or a wire trellis.
70
What determines the type of trellising?
The type of trellis or support varies according to the manner in which the vine is trained.
71
The principles of canopy management are voiced through what?
the selection of a training system.
72
Most vines can be classified under what 2 types of training methods?
either head-trained or cordon-trained.
73
cordon training
the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season
74
The vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season. What type of training is this considered?
Cordon Training
75
head trained vine
Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a knob, or head.
76
Between a head trained and cordon trained vine, which one requires a trellising system?
Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all.
Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised (Guyot training system), head-training is commonly asserted as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines.
77
How are head trained vines pruned?
Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned
78
How are cordon trained vines pruned?
cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned
79
Discuss how cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned
If left on the vine, a green shoot (fruiting cane) will harden to become a woody cane after a season—along the cane are a number of buds, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak. The spur is a cane cut back to two buds. If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur. Thus, each spur will produce two fruiting canes each year, one of which will become the following year’s spur.
80
Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from _____ to _____, and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape.
Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from "six" to "over a dozen," and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape.
81
One of the most basic systems of cane-pruning/head-training
Guyot system
82
Who developed the Guyot system and when?
It was developed in the 1860 by Jules Guyot.
83
The ________ requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane.
The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane.
84
Guyot system
The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane.
85
The simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training
Gobelet system
86
an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk.
Gobelet system
87
Gobelet system
an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk.
88
In Italy the Gobelet system is known as what?
albarello
89
albarello
Gobelet system in Italy
90
en vaso
Gobelet system in Spain
91
In Spain the Gobelet system is known as what?
en vaso
92
Australians often refer to Gobelet system as what?
bush vines
93
bush vines
This is what Australians often refer to Gobelet system
94
One of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems
Cordon de Royat
95
the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne
Cordon de Royat
96
Cordon de Royat
The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane.
97
The _________ system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane.
Cordon de Royat
98
Geneva system
The spur-pruned/cordon-trained Geneva system and a close variant, the Lyre system, are more complicated, as cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy.
99
Close variant to the Lyre system
Geneva system
100
VSP
Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), a trellising system, may be used for either cane-pruned or spur-pruned vines.
101
How many ways can vines trellised under a Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP) be pruned?
either cane or spur pruned
102
Tendone system
Tendone system, known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath.
103
Tendone system is known as what in Italy?
pergola
104
Tendone system is known as what in Portugal?
enforcado
105
alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath.
Tendone system
| Also known as "pergola" (Italy) and "enforcado" (Portugal)
106
How are Tendone vines pruned?
Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned.
107
Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into four main groups. What are they?
fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma
108
fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma
Categories of diseases that affect the vine
109
_______ diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine.
Fungal diseases
110
How are Fungal diseases spread in the vineyard?
Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard.
111
Where did some of the worst fungal diseases come from?
Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century.
112
Can fungal diseases be controlled?
Yes. Fungal diseases, while problematic in the past, can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications.
113
_________ are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine.
Bacterial diseases
114
_____, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines.
Viral diseases
115
How are viral diseases spread through the vineyard?
through grafting or transmitted by insects
116
Vines suffering from viral diseases show what symptoms?
Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit.
117
How are viral diseases controlled?
Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation
118
Phytoplasma diseases
Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting.
119
How are phytoplasma diseases spread through the vineyard?
like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting.
120
grapevine yellows
Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century.
121
Phylloxera
The tiny Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (originally called Phylloxera vastatrix), an aphid that feeds on the roots of vines
122
Phylloxera originated where?
native to the Eastern United States
123
When did Phylloxera first begin to make an impact upon the wine culture?
Quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile.
124
What does phylloxera do to the vine and what does the vineyard worker do to combat it?
Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system, and its arrival in Europe swelled fears of a total collapse of viticulture. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse.
125
What do sandy soils do to phylloxera?
Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal, act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera.
126
What can insects act as in vineyards?
Other insects—mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters—act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection.
127
List some fungal diseases
```
Powdery Mildew (Oidium)
Downy Mildew (Peronospora)
Eutypa Dieback
Esca (Black Measles)
Black Rot
Bunch Rot
```
128
Native to North America, the Uncinula necator fungus has spread worldwide, and thrives even in humid yet dry conditions—rainfall is actually a detriment to the survival of its spores. The fungus, during its anamorph stage, is known as Oidium tuckerii. _______ affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. It prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. Fruit affected by _______ is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates off-flavors in the wine.
Powdery Mildew (Oidium)
129
Another fungal disease that emigrated to Europe on North American vine cuttings, ______ spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early 1880s. Plasmopara viticola, the agent of downy mildew, attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. The infection is first visible as an oil spot on vine leaves. As spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. The fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring.
Downy Mildew (Peronospora)
130
Oidium
Powdery mildew
131
Peronospora
Downy mildew
132
Do arid (dry climates) regions prohibit the growth of Downy mildew?
Yes
133
The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture is made of what and when was it made?
A spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, and was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew.
134
Also called dead arm, the disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. This disease has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop.
What fungus disease is this?
Eutypa Dieback
135
What is the nickname for Eutypa Dieback fungal disease?
Dead arm
136
One of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, _____ thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure. Unlike other fungal diseases, _____ is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside
Esca (Black Measles)
137
Nickname for Esca
Black Measles
138
Native to North America, _____ spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays.
Black Rot
139
Bunch Rot
Bunch Rot: Bunch rot is a grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species. In general, bunch rots reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. One of the most common forms of bunch rot is Botrytis bunch rot.
140
How are grey rot and noble rot different?
Known in its malevolent form as grey rot, the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. It spreads quickly throughout vineyards. However, if the fungus invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in the noble rot, a precondition for some of the world’s greatest sweet wines. Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate.
141
What are some Bacterial Diseases?
Pierce’s Disease
Crown Gall (Black Knot)
Bacterial Blight
142
Caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa and most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants—________ is a scourge, rendering vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing it within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion.
Pierce’s Disease
143
What most commonly transmites Pierce's Disease?
glassy-winged sharpshooter (a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants)
144
The Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium causes the _________ disease in a wide variety of plant species. When affected, a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease.
Crown Gall (Black Knot)
145
How is Crown Gall spread?
The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood.
146
Nickname for Crown Gall?
Black Knot
147
Caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, _______ often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture.
Bacterial Blight
148
How is Bacterial Blight spread in the vineyard?
Bacterial Blight is spread by rain and compromised pruning tools.
149
Bacterial Blight is controlled by what measures?
By the use of hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture
150
Examples of Viral Diseases
Leafroll Virus
| Fanleaf Degeneration
151
A condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus’s malevolent side: reduced yields and delayed ripening.
Leafroll Virus
152
How do you combat Leafroll virus?
It is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed.
153
How is Leafroll Virus spread throughout the vineyards?
Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug.
154
A nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, ________ deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries.
Fanleaf Degeneration
155
What is the appearance of the leaves on a vine suffering from Fanleaf Degeneration?
The leaves on an infected vine are malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished.
156
Types of Phytoplasma Diseases
Flavescence Dorée
157
A form of grapevine yellows, _________ first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines.
Flavescence Dorée
158
Precautions taken to control Flavescence Dorée?
No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread.
159
When an American (or Australian) wine is labeled as organic, it must be produced from organically-grown grapes and contain no added ______—a stipulation which prevents most good bottles from qualifying, as ______ are an important (and almost universal) preservative in wine.
sulfites
160
How do some New World producers trick the consumer that their wine is made organically?
Many bottles are labeled as “wine made from organically grown grapes,” a designation which permits the addition of sulfites.
161
Despite the image of green, less than _____ of California’s wineries use any organically grown grapes. The EU is, as of mid-2010, currently in the process of re-evaluating its organic requirements in regards to wine and sulfites.
10%
162
How would you describe Biodynamic viticulture?
Concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with an almost mystical sensibility. Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, in the ideal of biodynamic farming, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity.
163
Who introduced biodynamic viticulture and when?
Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire.
164
Who certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally?
The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association
165
vinification
the transformation of grape juice into wine
166
Why would a winemaker add sulfur dioxide (SO2) to unfermented grape must?
To prevent oxidation and bacterial contamination, and to ensure rapid fermentation.
167
Acetaldehyde
Regarded as a sign of oxidation in finished wines, is actually the last link on the chain of intermediate compounds between sugar and alcohol, and will remain in the new wine in trace amounts.
168
The small amount of acetaldehyde in a finished wine will be converted to what?
A small amount of the remaining acetaldehyde is inevitably converted to acetic acid, which in turn reacts with alcohol to produce ethyl acetate, a culprit of volatile acidity in wine.
169
When volatile acidity is encountered as a fault, excessive acetic acid has been produced by the activity of ______, the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen.
acetobacter
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acetobacter
the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen.
171
Yeasts require nitrogen to work, and low levels of nitrogen in the must leads to the formation of ______, a highly volatile compound reminiscent of rotten eggs.
hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
172
Levels of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in a wine can be affected by what other component?
H2S levels may also be affected by the addition of SO2. In winemaking terms, the addition of sulfites refers to sulfur dioxide (SO2); sulfides include hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
173
Mercaptans and other foul-smelling compounds are produced how?
under reductive conditions.
174
Below ____°F, most yeasts will not act; above ____°F, yeasts will die
Below 50°F, most yeasts will not act; above 113°F, yeasts will die
175
White wine fermentations usually take place on the cooler end, as fruit and freshness are preserved at lower temperatures. True or false?
True
176
What are the benefits of high fermentations for red wine?
The benefit of hot fermentations for red wines is in the increased extraction of color, tannin and flavor compounds.
177
What are the benefits of barrel fermentation?
Barrel fermentation, on the other hand, lacks temperature control but the relatively small size of the vessel prevents temperatures from rising too high.
178
Typical flavor profile for white grapes that barrel fermented?
White grapes (such as Chardonnay) fermented in barrel will lose some of the initial fruit and fresh aromatics, yet gain a more cohesive expression of oak and a subtler color than those fermented in tank but aged in a new barrel.
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bâtonnage
lees stiring
180
What does lees contact and batonnage (lees stirring) do to the flavor profile of a wine?
Barrel fermented wines are generally subject to the processes of lees contact and bâtonnage, or lees stirring, which add further complexity and richness.
181
Benefits of cultured yeast
Cultured yeasts promise reliability, and are often able to continue to work in higher levels of alcohol than ambient yeasts.
182
Benefits of ambient yeast
Ambient yeasts—often inaccurately identified as native or wild—inhabit the winery and come to life in the presence of must, although they are by nature less predictable than cultured yeasts. Many winemakers believe ambient yeasts create a more complex wine.
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reverse osmosis
separates the wine into two constituent parts, permeate and retentate.
184
permeate
which contains water and ethanol, is then distilled to a proper level before being recombined with the retentate—the wine’s aromatic compounds—at a lower percentage of alcohol.
185
retentate
the wine’s aromatic compounds during reverse osmosis.
It is later blended back into the permeate
186
Is dealcoholization allowed in the EU?
Once banned in the EU, such processes of de-alcoholization by physical separation were legalized in 2009, provided the level of alcohol is not adjusted by more than 2%.
187
How do winemakers in warmer regions balance their wines?
Yes, winemakers in warm regions may also choose to balance their wines through acidification
188
acidification
the addition of acid to must or to a finished wine. Tartaric acid and malic acid, the two principle acids in grape juice, may be used for acidification; tartaric acid, added prior to fermentation, is preferred.
189
As (or after) the alcoholic fermentation occurs, the unrelated process of __________, also known as secondary fermentation or “malo,” may take place in the wine.
malolactic fermentation
190
What happens during malolactic fermentation?
In malolactic fermentation, lactic acid bacteria convert harsh malic acids into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide. It rounds out a wine’s texture.
191
Can malolactic fermentation be induced by the winemaker?
Yes. Malolactic fermentation may be initiated by inoculation, or it may occur naturally, as lactic acid bacteria are naturally found alongside yeasts on grape skins.
192
What is diacetyl a byproduct from?
Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation.
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anaerobic environment
under a protective blanket of CO2
194
Carbonic maceration
Carbonic maceration (macération carbonique) is an alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic environment (under a protective blanket of CO2) initiate an intracellular fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes to transform its own sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts.
195
Can carbonic maceration be used as a complete form of fermentation?
No, carbonic fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production.
196
MOG
material other than grapes
197
Name of machine that crushes grapes?
a crusher-destemmer
198
Benefits of wines made whole cluster
Whole cluster fermentation requires less handling while improving the movement of juice and air through the cap.
199
Possible dangers of producing a wine whole cluster
Damaged or unripe stems, however, can cause undesirable green flavors in the wine.
200
What are "jacks" in wine-making?
leftover pieces of grape stem
201
Crushed red grapes will usually undergo a pre-fermentation maceration, which promotes the extraction of color and tannin. True or false?
True.
Traditionally, this maceration was the simple consequence of waiting for ambient yeasts to ignite fermentation, but today many inoculated musts undergo this period of aqueous extraction.
202
Describe the cold soaking process
Cold soak, a pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial SO2 additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide. Proponents may cold soak grapes for nearly a week before fermentation.
203
Does fermentation and maceration happen at the same time during red wine making?
Yes, fermentation and maceration occur in tandem for red wines.
204
What are grape skins left in the must during fermentation?
Grape skins are always included in red wine fermentation, as the winemaker hopes to extract the phenolics contained within grape skins—tannin, color compounds (anthocyanins) and flavor compounds—with the help of heat and alcohol.
205
What creates the cap (chapeau) of grape solids (pomace) during red wine making?
As red wine ferments, a cap (chapeau) of grape solids (pomace) develops on the surface of the must, pushed up by the action of CO2.
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What happens if the cap is left unmanaged during red wine making?
without intervention, the cap will dry out, solidify and prevent extraction.
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pigeage
One traditional method of submerging and breaking up the cap is pigeage, or punching down.
208
How can pigeage be preformed?
Pigeage may be performed manually—by workers using poles, paddles, or even their own feet—or mechanically.
209
Besides pigeage, what is the alternate method of cap management?
remontage
210
remontage
In which the fermenting wine is pumped over the top of the cap. Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree.
211
What affect does remontage have?
Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree.
212
How many times can remontage and pigeage be performed?
Both methods may be performed once or several times daily during fermentation.
213
délestage
or rack and return, is a cap management procedure which optimizes contact between must and solids during fermentation. When the cap has risen to the top of the tank, fermenting wine is taken from a bottom valve to a separate receiving vessel. The remaining pomace is allowed to free drain for two or more hours. The wine is then gently pumped back over the top of the cap, using a low pressure pump or sprinkler system. This procedure, usually conducted once or twice during fermentation, is designed to ensure optimum diffusion of tannins and pigments from the fruit into the wine
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vin de goutte
free-run wine
215
What happens after fermentation and any post-fermentation maceration?
the winemaker will draw the high quality, free-run wine (vin de goutte) from the tank. The remaining pomace is then pressed to yield coarser, tannic press wine (vin de presse). A small proportion of press wine may be blended in to a top cuvée for structure, or it may be entirely reserved for lesser wines.
216
vin de presse
tannic press wine
217
The traditional basket press relies on _______ to press the pomace.
vertical pressure
218
The modern pneumatic bladder press exerts gentle pressure on the grapes by means of its _________.
inflation with air.
219
élevage
maturation period
220
soutirage
Racking
221
What occurs during the racking, or soutirage, phase?
It is the movement of wine from one vessel to another, providing aeration and clarification as the wine is removed from its lees, or sediment.
222
When does malolactic fermentation typically occur in wine-making?
Malolactic fermentation may occur quickly at the end of fermentation or slowly during maturation.
223
sans soufre
without sulfur
224
Is SO2 (Sulfur dioxide) sometimes added to wine? If so, why?
Yes, SO2 is often added during maturation, or just before bottling—an addition that is anathema to advocates of sans soufre (“without sulfur”), a newer doctrine of extreme natural winemaking.
225
Prior to bottling, the wines will be racked a final time, and may be fined or filtered. Why would this occur?
Both processes ensure greater clarification in the finished wine, and filtration promotes stability in the bottle.
226
collage
fining
227
Why would a winemaker use bentonite, casein, isinglass, gelatin, and egg white?
For fining
228
What do fining agents remove?
precipitate solids out of the wine
229
casein
a milk protein used as a fining agent
230
isinglass
a material obtained from sturgeon bladders that is used as a fining agent.
231
Bentonite
a type of clay that is used as a fining agent
232
Filtration
Is a more invasive and expensive process for the fining process, is often accomplished through the use of pads or a membrane with microscopic openings.
233
Many critics charge that fining and especially _______ strip the wine of character, and a growing number of winemakers are proclaiming their aversion to either method.
filtration
234
How are white wine grapes handled differently than red wine grapes before fermentation?
White wine grapes are crushed and pressed prior to fermentation.
235
Can white grapes see skin contact? If so, when would this take place?
Yes, white grapes may see some extended skin contact, usually measured in hours rather than days, between crushing and pressing
236
What benefits come from extended skin contact for white wine making?
This maceration enables the extraction of aromatic compounds but may lead to excessive tannin and bitterness in the final wine if unchecked.
237
débourbage
settle
238
After ________, the juice is allowed to settle (débourbage).
pressing
239
What does settling, or debourbage, do after the pressing phase for white wine?
This process allows the juice to be racked off suspended solids and clarified prior to fermentation.
240
Prior to fermentation, what are the major concerns during the pressing and settling process (debourbage) for white wine making?
warm temperatures and oxygen are the enemy
241
What actions must a winemaker preform to combat the concern of warm temperatures and oxygen to the unfermented white wine?
winemakers must keep musts cool and prevent spoilage or premature fermentation with the judicious use of SO2.
242
Is the fermentation temperature different for white wine than red wine?
Yes, fermentation occurs at a cooler temperature for white wines than for reds, and there is no cap, as the grapes have already been pressed.
243
cold stabilization
a process that causes tartrate crystals to precipitate out of the wine at a temperature of approximately 25°F.
244
What happens to white wines that are not cold stablized?
In white wines that are not cold-stabilized, crystals may later form in the bottle.
245
Do light aromatic white wines undergo barrel fermentation?
No, light, aromatic white wines do not often undergo barrel maturation or malolactic fermentation, and will usually be bottled shortly after the conclusion of fermentation.
246
sterilized fresh grape juice in Germany
Süssreserve
247
Are off-dry and sweet white wines often filtered?
Yes, as the sugar content can lead to unexpected refermentation in the bottle.
248
lees
yeast sediment
249
Fermented wine, whether in tank or barrel, may be left in contact with the lees. Why?
in order to encourage malolactic fermentation—lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees—and supplement richness and body in the wines.
250
Does lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees?
Yes (during malolactic fermentation)
251
bâtonnage
French term for the winemaking operation of lees stirring.
252
Why would a winemaker perform batonnage?
Lees stirring is done partly to avoid the development of hydrogen sulfide. Unless a thick layer of lees is stirred, oxygen does not reach the bottom layer and strong enough reducing conditions develop to change any small amounts of sulfur into hydrogen sulfide.
253
How does batonnage affect oak flavor?
Stirring up the lees in the barrel also affects oak flavour, however. If the lees are stirred, they act as an even more effective buffer between the wine and the wood, limiting the extent to which wood tannins and pigments are extracted into the wine. Wines subjected to lees stirring therefore tend to be much paler and less tannic than those whose lees are not stirred.
254
How does batonnage affect the stability of a wine?
Regular lees stirring also stimulates the release of mannoproteins, thereby improving the stability of the wine. Some producers have become more circumspect in their use of this technique in the belief that it makes the wine heavier, and that over-zealous stirring may increase the risk of premature oxidation.
255
What are the 2 basic ways of making rose?
blending and limited skin maceration
256
blended rosé
simply the product of red and white base wines blended together, a technique widely regarded as inferior. Blending is prohibited throughout the EU, but only for wines below the PGI level!
257
Superior method of making rose wine
Limited skin contact: subjecting red grapes to a short period of skin contact prior to fermentation is generally upheld as the superior technique for still rosé winemaking
258
How long would a winemaker leave their rose wine on the skins?
In this method, a winemaker may purposefully craft rosé by leaving the juice in contact with its skins for a period of several hours to several days, depending on the desired extraction of color.
259
"bleed" juice from a maceration
producing rosé as a byproduct of red wine fermentation.
known as the saignée ("bleeding") method
260
saignée ("bleeding") method
pink juice is drawn from a vessel to concentrate the remaining must for red wine production, improving its color and structure. Finally, some winemakers may choose not to crush at all, achieving the palest of hues through direct pressing of whole red grapes or clusters.
261
What creates the large variance in color for rose wine?
depending on the technique of production and the length of maceration.
262
Oak, a watertight, lightweight, and malleable wood, became a vessel of choice for wine during the era of ________.
ancient Rome
263
How does oak influence the texture of the wine?
Oak allows gentle, slow oxidation to occur, rounding out and softening the texture of wine.
264
"form of lactones and phenolic aldehydes such as vanillin"
What the use of new oak imparts in wine
265
a barrel becomes neutral, ceasing to contribute flavor and aroma by its ___________ year of use.
fourth to sixth
266
Alternative to buying expensive oak barrels?
The use of oak chips is a cheaper alternative, although they will not provide an oxidative effect.
267
microbullage
Micro-oxygenation
268
an aeration technique in which small amounts of oxygen are allowed to enter a stainless steel tank during either fermentation or maturation of the wine, may be combined with oak chips to approximate the effects of a new barrel at a fraction of the cost.
Micro-oxygenation (microbullage)
269
What determines the flavor profile of an oak barrel?
The flavor imparted by an oak barrel is dependent on the level of toast and the type of wood.
270
French oak barrels, produced from?
Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees
271
Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees
Used for French oak barrel production
272
characterized by tight wood grain developed through slow growth.
French oak barrels (made from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees)
273
Quercus alba
American white oak
274
Faster-growing ______ white oak species
American
275
a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel.
Split technique that is used for French barrel making
276
Why does American oak display more coconut character than French oak?
The sawn method is used, which releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak.
277
American oak is made by the sawn method, and French oak is made by the _______ method.
split
*a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel.
278
In terms of production, what character makes American oak different than French oak? How does that affect its flavor?
American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage. This method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak.
279
How is French oak dried?
French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors
280
How is American oak dried?
American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated. The quality (and subtlety) of American oak is improving, however, and many American coopers now use air-drying techniques.
281
chauffage
warming
| *One of the 3 processes of barrel making: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)
282
Name for warming stage in barrel making
chauffage
283
cintrage
Shaping stage of barrel making
| *One of the 3 processes of barrel making: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)
284
Name of shaping stage in barrel making.
cintrage
| *One of the 3 processes of barrel making: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)
285
bousinage
The toasting process in barrel making.
| *One of the 3 processes of barrel making: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)
286
What is the toasting stage called in barrel making?
bousinage
287
responsible for oaky aromas
lactones
288
Increasing the toasting levels to a barrel does raises what in the wine?
level of lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin
289
What flavors replace the lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin aromas when a higher toast level is added to the barrel?
increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas. Light toast promotes the most extraction of wood tannin.
290
What promotes a higher extraction of oak tannin?
Low toast level
