Viticulture and Vinification

Question 1

How is viticulture defined?

Answer 1

Viticulture, the study of grape growing, slowly developed in conjunction with the cultivation of the vine, as growers over time learned from instinct and observation. The grower or viticulturalist confronts decisions on vine training and pruning methods, canopy management, fertilization and irrigation, harvest dates, and disease control; and monitors the development of the vineyard in general.

Question 2

When does the annual life cycle begin for the vine?

Answer 2

The annual life cycle of the vine begins in the spring, with budbreak.

Question 3

What happens during budbreak and when does it occur?

Answer 3

During budbreak, which usually occurs in March or April, the first small shoots and leaves will break through buds left intact by winter pruning.

Question 4

When is the vine most vulnerable to frost?

Answer 4

During budbreak

Question 5

The vine’s foliage continues to develop through the early spring, and small green clusters called ________ form on the shoots by mid-April.

Answer 5

embryo bunches

Question 6

When does flowering occur on a vine?

Answer 6

Flowering occurs six to thirteen weeks after the initial budbreak, depending on the climate.

Question 7

What happens during the flowering phase of the vine?

Answer 7

During the flowering phase of the vine, the embryo bunches bloom into small flowers for about ten days, and the self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of fertilization, which leads to fruit set.

Question 8

When the vine is self-pollinating, what is the name of the process that helps lead to fruit set?

Answer 8

Fertilization

Question 9

The vine, which started “______” or “_____” watery sap from pruned canes sometime in February (in the Northern Hemisphere), will finally emerge from dormancy as the average air temperature surpasses 50°F.

Answer 9

“weeping” or “bleeding”

Question 10

Successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during fruit set—each grape is the product of _________.

Answer 10

individual fertilization

Question 11

What percent does fruit set hover around?

Answer 11

Fruit set usually hovers around 30%—the remaining embryo berries “shatter,” falling from the cluster.

Question 12

As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in ______ and _____ in sugar.

Answer 12

As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in acidity and low in sugar.

Question 13

When does veraison occur and exactly happens to the vine around that point?

Answer 13

In August, veraison (véraison) begins and the grapes begin to truly ripen, as sugars are moved from the leaf system to the fruit.

Question 14

What happens during veraison?

Answer 14

During veraison, the grapes soften and change color—turning from green to red-black or yellow-green—and acidity decreases.

Question 15

Do all varietals go through an even veraison phase in the vineyard?

Answer 15

No, while veraison swiftly affects an individual grape, it may not evenly affect a whole bunch. Some varieties, such as Zinfandel, are characterized by extremely uneven ripening, in which veraison haphazardly affects each bunch.

Question 16

When does cane ripening on the vine occur and happens during that phase?

Answer 16

Cane ripening occurs in tandem with veraison, as the stems on each shoot begin to lignify, accumulating carbohydrates to sustain the plant through the winter.

Question 17

vendange

Answer 17

harvest

Question 18

When are white grapes harvested?

Answer 18

White grapes are generally harvested before red grapes, although some white grapes destined for the specialized botrytised dessert wines or icewine may hang on the vine until late November or December.

Question 19

complete physiological ripeness

Answer 19

a concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics, the condition of the berry and its pulp, and seed lignification—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine.

Question 20

When should a grower add fertilization down and prune the vineyard?

Answer 20

Fertilization may be applied in the fall after harvest, and the vines will be pruned over the winter to prepare for next year’s growth.

Question 21

What are all the elements of climate?

Answer 21

Climate encompasses expected temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind, and other atmospheric elements, and remains relatively stable from year to year—weather is the daily manifestation of climate, and is generally responsible for vintage variation.

Question 22

For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between ____° and ____°F, with an ideal of ___°F.

Answer 22

For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between 50° and 68°F, with an ideal of 57°F.

Question 23

To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately ____°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of ____°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between ____° and ___° in both the northern and southern hemispheres.

Answer 23

To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately 70°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of 66°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between 30° and 50° in both the northern and southern hemispheres.

Question 24

One method of classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to that temperature—is the ____________ .

Answer 24

California Heat Summation Index

Question 25

How is the California Heat Summation Index divided?

Answer 25

This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days.

Question 26

How are degree days calculated?

Answer 26

Degree days are calculated by multiplying the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation

Question 27

Degree Days for Region Ia

Answer 27

1,500-2,000° days F (850-1,111° days C)

Question 28

Degree Days for Region 1b

Answer 28

2,000-2,500° days F (1,111-1389° days C)

Question 29

Degree Days for Region II

Answer 29

2,500-3,000° days F (1,389-1,667° days C)

Question 30

Degree Days for Region III

Answer 30

3,000-3,500° days F (1,667-1,944° days C)

Question 31

Degree Days for Region IV

Answer 31

3,500-4,000° days F (1,944-2,222° days C)

Question 32

Degree Days for Region V

Answer 32

4,000-4,900° days F (2,222-2,700° days C)

Question 33

Photosynthesis

Answer 33

photosynthesis—in which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars

Question 34

Sunshine is a requirement to the vine because of what process?

Answer 34

photosynthesis

Question 35

What is the minimum amount of sunshine that is needed for a vine?

Answer 35

approximately 1,300 hours.

Question 36

As sunshine during the growing season increases the farther one moves away from the equator, vines in the cooler climates often enjoy more sunshine than vines in the warmer climates. True or False?

Answer 36

True

Question 37

Does cloud cover affect the transmission of light for photosynthesis? If not, what would it affect?

Answer 37

Cloud cover will not greatly impact the transmission of light for the purposes of photosynthesis, but it will affect the amount of heat the sun bestows on a vine.

Question 38

Depending on the warmth of the climate, how many inches of rain does a vine need to produce an adequate crop?

Answer 38

The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant, but it still requires approximately 20-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop, depending on the warmth of the climate.

Question 39

If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur. What will that do to the fruit?

Answer 39

A condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shutdown of the vine if the stress is too severe.

Question 40

If the vine receives too much rain what will that do to the fruit?

Answer 40

Too much rain will not adversely affect the vine itself, but it will dilute fruit quality and create a friendly environment for fungal diseases.

Question 41

How can the use of wind benefit the vine?

Answer 41

Wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air.

Question 42

What drawbacks does having wind in the vineyard have?

Answer 42

At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine flowering and denude vines. In colder climates, wind chill can be especially devastating.

Question 43

terroir

Answer 43

terroir, in a holistic sense, defines the complete system of the living vine. The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it.

Question 44

macroclimate

Answer 44

the regional climate

Question 45

What can be said about the macroclimate of a wine region?

Answer 45

Macroclimate varies in size depending on the factors affecting it: the Rheingau, on a single south-facing slope, and the Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence, are subject to single macroclimates. However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor.

Question 46

mesoclimate

Answer 46

the climate of a particular vineyard.

Question 47

What is of important on a mesoclimate?

Answer 47

The aspect (degree and direction of its slope) and shelter of a vineyard are essential to distinctions in mesoclimate.

Question 48

_________ are small: one must realistically speak of several in Corton, the largest grand cru vineyard in Burgundy, whereas La Tâche has a single ________.

Answer 48

Mesoclimates

Question 49

What is a smaller scale than mesoclimate

Answer 49

That would be microclimate, which refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy, the restricted space including all parts of the vine above the ground.

Question 50

Techniques of canopy management have been developed to adjust the ________ of a vine, particularly in its exposure to sunshine and its eventual yield.

Answer 50

microclimate

Question 51

What are some vineyard practices that are preformed in the vineyard that improve the microclimate?

Answer 51

Winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir.

Question 52

Between low-fertility and high-fertility soils, which one produces better fruit?

Answer 52

In general, low-fertility soils produce better wines than rich soils, the latter being better suited for other types of agriculture. Conventional wisdom holds that the vine should always struggle to produce good fruit; that too much vigor results in commonplace wine.

Question 53

What type of soil is best suited for the vine?

Answer 53

Well-drained, easily penetrable soils with good water-retention are desirable, as they permit the vine to dig deeply for water and minerals

Question 54

Is heat retention of the soil important for vine?

Answer 54

Yes. The heat-retaining (and reflecting) character of a particular soil is also an important factor, especially in correlation with climate.

Question 55

What does high pH in a soil do to a wine and what type of soils have high pH?

Answer 55

High soil pH, common in limestone-rich soils, contributes to higher acidity (low pH) in grapes, and although such soils are typically inhospitable to most agriculture, viticulture thrives.

Question 56

What happens if a soil pH is low (soil acidity) and how can that be corrected in the vineyard?

Answer 56

Soil acidity (low pH) can, on the other hand, be a deterrent to viticulture. This can be countered by the application of lime.

Question 57

Clones

Answer 57

Identical genetic reproductions of a single vine

Question 58

How are clones selected for a vineyard?

Answer 58

They are selected for a host of different attributes in both the field and the wine: disease resistance, hardiness, yield, aromatics, structure, and color are among the qualities to consider when selecting a clone.

Question 59

mass selection (selection massale)

Answer 59

Popular in Burgundy, enables the grower to select budwood for replanting from a number of vines throughout the vineyard, rather than single clones. In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate negative traits through appropriate selection—and while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained.

Question 60

Other name for budwood selection

Answer 60

scion

Question 61

Salvation came in the form of lowly American grapevine species—________ and others—that were highly resistant to the root louse (phylloxera).

Answer 61

Vitis riparia

Question 62

Why would a grower put so much thought into their vine’s rootstocks?

Answer 62

A grower may select a particular rootstock not just for its resistance to phylloxera, but also its ability to withstand other diseases and drought, its tolerance to salt and lime, and/or its effect on vine vigor. The combination of clonal and rootstock selection will have a great impact on the character and health of the vine.

Question 63

After replanting a vineyard, how long does it take to produce suitable fruit?

Answer 63

3 years

Question 64

When is vine considered mature in most European appellations?

Answer 64

In many European appellations, growers are prohibited from harvesting grapes for wine until the vine is at least three years old. By its sixth year, the grapevine is considered mature; shoot growth and the vine’s annual yield, in the absence of major stresses, stabilize

Question 65

When is the root system considered mature

Answer 65

The root system will grow to maturity by the tenth year, although poorer soils will slow growth

Question 66

When does the yield of a replanted vineyard begin to decline?

Answer 66

The yield of many commercial vineyards will begin to decline after 20 years, and vineyards are often uneconomical to maintain after 50 years of age. However, exceptional old vine plantings of a century or more of age exist, producing small yields but highly concentrated fruit. Old vine plantings of Rhône variety in Australia and Zinfandel in California are especially valued.

Question 67

Pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine are all considered under what practice?

Answer 67

Vine training

Question 68

What is the objective of vine training, which includes the processes of pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine,

Answer 68

To maximize the vine’s performance in local conditions and to keep its canes from touching the ground and establishing new roots.

Question 69

Does the grape vine have a have self supporting structure?

Answer 69

No. The grapevine does not have a self-supporting structure, and must often be tethered to another apparatus: a tree, stake, or a wire trellis.

Question 70

What determines the type of trellising?

Answer 70

The type of trellis or support varies according to the manner in which the vine is trained.

Question 71

The principles of canopy management are voiced through what?

Answer 71

the selection of a training system.

Question 72

Most vines can be classified under what 2 types of training methods?

Answer 72

either head-trained or cordon-trained.

Question 73

cordon training

Answer 73

the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season

Question 74

The vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season. What type of training is this considered?

Answer 74

Cordon Training

Question 75

head trained vine

Answer 75

Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a knob, or head.

Question 76

Between a head trained and cordon trained vine, which one requires a trellising system?

Answer 76

Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all.
Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised (Guyot training system), head-training is commonly asserted as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines.

Question 77

How are head trained vines pruned?

Answer 77

Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned

Question 78

How are cordon trained vines pruned?

Answer 78

cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned

Question 79

Discuss how cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned

Answer 79

If left on the vine, a green shoot (fruiting cane) will harden to become a woody cane after a season—along the cane are a number of buds, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak. The spur is a cane cut back to two buds. If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur. Thus, each spur will produce two fruiting canes each year, one of which will become the following year’s spur.

Question 80

Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from _____ to _____, and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape.

Answer 80

Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from “six” to “over a dozen,” and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape.

Question 81

One of the most basic systems of cane-pruning/head-training

Answer 81

Guyot system

Question 82

Who developed the Guyot system and when?

Answer 82

It was developed in the 1860 by Jules Guyot.

Question 83

The ________ requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane.

Answer 83

The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane.

Question 84

Guyot system

Answer 84

The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane.

Question 85

The simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training

Answer 85

Gobelet system

Question 86

an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk.

Answer 86

Gobelet system

Question 87

Gobelet system

Answer 87

an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk.

Question 88

In Italy the Gobelet system is known as what?

Answer 88

albarello

Question 89

albarello

Answer 89

Gobelet system in Italy

Question 90

en vaso

Answer 90

Gobelet system in Spain

Question 91

In Spain the Gobelet system is known as what?

Answer 91

en vaso

Question 92

Australians often refer to Gobelet system as what?

Answer 92

bush vines

Question 93

bush vines

Answer 93

This is what Australians often refer to Gobelet system

Question 94

One of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems

Answer 94

Cordon de Royat

Question 95

the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne

Answer 95

Cordon de Royat

Question 96

Cordon de Royat

Answer 96

The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane.

Question 97

The _________ system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane.

Answer 97

Cordon de Royat

Question 98

Geneva system

Answer 98

The spur-pruned/cordon-trained Geneva system and a close variant, the Lyre system, are more complicated, as cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy.

Question 99

Close variant to the Lyre system

Answer 99

Geneva system

Question 100

VSP

Answer 100

Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), a trellising system, may be used for either cane-pruned or spur-pruned vines.

Question 101

How many ways can vines trellised under a Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP) be pruned?

Answer 101

either cane or spur pruned

Question 102

Tendone system

Answer 102

Tendone system, known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath.

Question 103

Tendone system is known as what in Italy?

Answer 103

pergola

Question 104

Tendone system is known as what in Portugal?

Answer 104

enforcado

Question 105

alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath.

Answer 105

Tendone system

Also known as “pergola” (Italy) and “enforcado” (Portugal)

Question 106

How are Tendone vines pruned?

Answer 106

Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned.

Question 107

Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into four main groups. What are they?

Answer 107

fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma

Question 108

fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma

Answer 108

Categories of diseases that affect the vine

Question 109

_______ diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine.

Answer 109

Fungal diseases

Question 110

How are Fungal diseases spread in the vineyard?

Answer 110

Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard.

Question 111

Where did some of the worst fungal diseases come from?

Answer 111

Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century.

Question 112

Can fungal diseases be controlled?

Answer 112

Yes. Fungal diseases, while problematic in the past, can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications.

Question 113

_________ are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine.

Answer 113

Bacterial diseases

Question 114

_____, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines.

Answer 114

Viral diseases

Question 115

How are viral diseases spread through the vineyard?

Answer 115

through grafting or transmitted by insects

Question 116

Vines suffering from viral diseases show what symptoms?

Answer 116

Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit.

Question 117

How are viral diseases controlled?

Answer 117

Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation

Question 118

Phytoplasma diseases

Answer 118

Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting.

Question 119

How are phytoplasma diseases spread through the vineyard?

Answer 119

like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting.

Question 120

grapevine yellows

Answer 120

Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century.

Question 121

Phylloxera

Answer 121

The tiny Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (originally called Phylloxera vastatrix), an aphid that feeds on the roots of vines

Question 122

Phylloxera originated where?

Answer 122

native to the Eastern United States

Question 123

When did Phylloxera first begin to make an impact upon the wine culture?

Answer 123

Quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile.

Question 124

What does phylloxera do to the vine and what does the vineyard worker do to combat it?

Answer 124

Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system, and its arrival in Europe swelled fears of a total collapse of viticulture. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse.

Question 125

What do sandy soils do to phylloxera?

Answer 125

Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal, act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera.

Question 126

What can insects act as in vineyards?

Answer 126

Other insects—mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters—act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection.

Question 127

List some fungal diseases

Answer 127

Powdery Mildew (Oidium)
Downy Mildew (Peronospora)
Eutypa Dieback
Esca (Black Measles)
Black Rot
Bunch Rot

Question 128

Native to North America, the Uncinula necator fungus has spread worldwide, and thrives even in humid yet dry conditions—rainfall is actually a detriment to the survival of its spores. The fungus, during its anamorph stage, is known as Oidium tuckerii. _______ affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. It prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. Fruit affected by _______ is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates off-flavors in the wine.

Answer 128

Powdery Mildew (Oidium)

Question 129

Another fungal disease that emigrated to Europe on North American vine cuttings, ______ spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early 1880s. Plasmopara viticola, the agent of downy mildew, attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. The infection is first visible as an oil spot on vine leaves. As spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. The fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring.

Answer 129

Downy Mildew (Peronospora)

Question 130

Oidium

Answer 130

Powdery mildew

Question 131

Peronospora

Answer 131

Downy mildew

Question 132

Do arid (dry climates) regions prohibit the growth of Downy mildew?

Answer 132

Yes

Question 133

The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture is made of what and when was it made?

Answer 133

A spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, and was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew.

Question 134

Also called dead arm, the disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. This disease has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop.

What fungus disease is this?

Answer 134

Eutypa Dieback

Question 135

What is the nickname for Eutypa Dieback fungal disease?

Answer 135

Dead arm

Question 136

One of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, _____ thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure. Unlike other fungal diseases, _____ is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside

Answer 136

Esca (Black Measles)

Question 137

Nickname for Esca

Answer 137

Black Measles

Question 138

Native to North America, _____ spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays.

Answer 138

Black Rot

Question 139

Bunch Rot

Answer 139

Bunch Rot: Bunch rot is a grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species. In general, bunch rots reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. One of the most common forms of bunch rot is Botrytis bunch rot.

Question 140

How are grey rot and noble rot different?

Answer 140

Known in its malevolent form as grey rot, the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. It spreads quickly throughout vineyards. However, if the fungus invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in the noble rot, a precondition for some of the world’s greatest sweet wines. Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate.

Question 141

What are some Bacterial Diseases?

Answer 141

Pierce’s Disease
Crown Gall (Black Knot)
Bacterial Blight

Question 142

Caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa and most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants—________ is a scourge, rendering vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing it within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion.

Answer 142

Pierce’s Disease

Question 143

What most commonly transmites Pierce’s Disease?

Answer 143

glassy-winged sharpshooter (a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants)

Question 144

The Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium causes the _________ disease in a wide variety of plant species. When affected, a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease.

Answer 144

Crown Gall (Black Knot)

Question 145

How is Crown Gall spread?

Answer 145

The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood.

Question 146

Nickname for Crown Gall?

Answer 146

Black Knot

Question 147

Caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, _______ often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture.

Answer 147

Bacterial Blight

Question 148

How is Bacterial Blight spread in the vineyard?

Answer 148

Bacterial Blight is spread by rain and compromised pruning tools.

Question 149

Bacterial Blight is controlled by what measures?

Answer 149

By the use of hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture

Question 150

Examples of Viral Diseases

Answer 150

Leafroll Virus

Fanleaf Degeneration

Question 151

A condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus’s malevolent side: reduced yields and delayed ripening.

Answer 151

Leafroll Virus

Question 152

How do you combat Leafroll virus?

Answer 152

It is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed.

Question 153

How is Leafroll Virus spread throughout the vineyards?

Answer 153

Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug.

Question 154

A nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, ________ deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries.

Answer 154

Fanleaf Degeneration

Question 155

What is the appearance of the leaves on a vine suffering from Fanleaf Degeneration?

Answer 155

The leaves on an infected vine are malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished.

Question 156

Types of Phytoplasma Diseases

Answer 156

Flavescence Dorée

Question 157

A form of grapevine yellows, _________ first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines.

Answer 157

Flavescence Dorée

Question 158

Precautions taken to control Flavescence Dorée?

Answer 158

No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread.

Question 159

When an American (or Australian) wine is labeled as organic, it must be produced from organically-grown grapes and contain no added ______—a stipulation which prevents most good bottles from qualifying, as ______ are an important (and almost universal) preservative in wine.

Answer 159

sulfites

Question 160

How do some New World producers trick the consumer that their wine is made organically?

Answer 160

Many bottles are labeled as “wine made from organically grown grapes,” a designation which permits the addition of sulfites.

Question 161

Despite the image of green, less than _____ of California’s wineries use any organically grown grapes. The EU is, as of mid-2010, currently in the process of re-evaluating its organic requirements in regards to wine and sulfites.

Answer 161

10%

Question 162

How would you describe Biodynamic viticulture?

Answer 162

Concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with an almost mystical sensibility. Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, in the ideal of biodynamic farming, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity.

Question 163

Who introduced biodynamic viticulture and when?

Answer 163

Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire.

Question 164

Who certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally?

Answer 164

The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association

Question 165

vinification

Answer 165

the transformation of grape juice into wine

Question 166

Why would a winemaker add sulfur dioxide (SO2) to unfermented grape must?

Answer 166

To prevent oxidation and bacterial contamination, and to ensure rapid fermentation.

Question 167

Acetaldehyde

Answer 167

Regarded as a sign of oxidation in finished wines, is actually the last link on the chain of intermediate compounds between sugar and alcohol, and will remain in the new wine in trace amounts.

Question 168

The small amount of acetaldehyde in a finished wine will be converted to what?

Answer 168

A small amount of the remaining acetaldehyde is inevitably converted to acetic acid, which in turn reacts with alcohol to produce ethyl acetate, a culprit of volatile acidity in wine.

Question 169

When volatile acidity is encountered as a fault, excessive acetic acid has been produced by the activity of ______, the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen.

Answer 169

acetobacter

Question 170

acetobacter

Answer 170

the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen.

Question 171

Yeasts require nitrogen to work, and low levels of nitrogen in the must leads to the formation of ______, a highly volatile compound reminiscent of rotten eggs.

Answer 171

hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

Question 172

Levels of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in a wine can be affected by what other component?

Answer 172

H2S levels may also be affected by the addition of SO2. In winemaking terms, the addition of sulfites refers to sulfur dioxide (SO2); sulfides include hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

Question 173

Mercaptans and other foul-smelling compounds are produced how?

Answer 173

under reductive conditions.

Question 174

Below ____°F, most yeasts will not act; above ____°F, yeasts will die

Answer 174

Below 50°F, most yeasts will not act; above 113°F, yeasts will die

Question 175

White wine fermentations usually take place on the cooler end, as fruit and freshness are preserved at lower temperatures. True or false?

Answer 175

True

Question 176

What are the benefits of high fermentations for red wine?

Answer 176

The benefit of hot fermentations for red wines is in the increased extraction of color, tannin and flavor compounds.

Question 177

What are the benefits of barrel fermentation?

Answer 177

Barrel fermentation, on the other hand, lacks temperature control but the relatively small size of the vessel prevents temperatures from rising too high.

Question 178

Typical flavor profile for white grapes that barrel fermented?

Answer 178

White grapes (such as Chardonnay) fermented in barrel will lose some of the initial fruit and fresh aromatics, yet gain a more cohesive expression of oak and a subtler color than those fermented in tank but aged in a new barrel.

Question 179

bâtonnage

Answer 179

lees stiring

Question 180

What does lees contact and batonnage (lees stirring) do to the flavor profile of a wine?

Answer 180

Barrel fermented wines are generally subject to the processes of lees contact and bâtonnage, or lees stirring, which add further complexity and richness.

Question 181

Benefits of cultured yeast

Answer 181

Cultured yeasts promise reliability, and are often able to continue to work in higher levels of alcohol than ambient yeasts.

Question 182

Benefits of ambient yeast

Answer 182

Ambient yeasts—often inaccurately identified as native or wild—inhabit the winery and come to life in the presence of must, although they are by nature less predictable than cultured yeasts. Many winemakers believe ambient yeasts create a more complex wine.

Question 183

reverse osmosis

Answer 183

separates the wine into two constituent parts, permeate and retentate.

Question 184

permeate

Answer 184

which contains water and ethanol, is then distilled to a proper level before being recombined with the retentate—the wine’s aromatic compounds—at a lower percentage of alcohol.

Question 185

retentate

Answer 185

the wine’s aromatic compounds during reverse osmosis.

It is later blended back into the permeate

Question 186

Is dealcoholization allowed in the EU?

Answer 186

Once banned in the EU, such processes of de-alcoholization by physical separation were legalized in 2009, provided the level of alcohol is not adjusted by more than 2%.

Question 187

How do winemakers in warmer regions balance their wines?

Answer 187

Yes, winemakers in warm regions may also choose to balance their wines through acidification

Question 188

acidification

Answer 188

the addition of acid to must or to a finished wine. Tartaric acid and malic acid, the two principle acids in grape juice, may be used for acidification; tartaric acid, added prior to fermentation, is preferred.

Question 189

As (or after) the alcoholic fermentation occurs, the unrelated process of __________, also known as secondary fermentation or “malo,” may take place in the wine.

Answer 189

malolactic fermentation

Question 190

What happens during malolactic fermentation?

Answer 190

In malolactic fermentation, lactic acid bacteria convert harsh malic acids into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide. It rounds out a wine’s texture.

Question 191

Can malolactic fermentation be induced by the winemaker?

Answer 191

Yes. Malolactic fermentation may be initiated by inoculation, or it may occur naturally, as lactic acid bacteria are naturally found alongside yeasts on grape skins.

Question 192

What is diacetyl a byproduct from?

Answer 192

Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation.

Question 193

anaerobic environment

Answer 193

under a protective blanket of CO2

Question 194

Carbonic maceration

Answer 194

Carbonic maceration (macération carbonique) is an alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic environment (under a protective blanket of CO2) initiate an intracellular fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes to transform its own sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts.

Question 195

Can carbonic maceration be used as a complete form of fermentation?

Answer 195

No, carbonic fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production.

Question 196

MOG

Answer 196

material other than grapes

Question 197

Name of machine that crushes grapes?

Answer 197

a crusher-destemmer

Question 198

Benefits of wines made whole cluster

Answer 198

Whole cluster fermentation requires less handling while improving the movement of juice and air through the cap.

Question 199

Possible dangers of producing a wine whole cluster

Answer 199

Damaged or unripe stems, however, can cause undesirable green flavors in the wine.

Question 200

What are “jacks” in wine-making?

Answer 200

leftover pieces of grape stem

Question 201

Crushed red grapes will usually undergo a pre-fermentation maceration, which promotes the extraction of color and tannin. True or false?

Answer 201

True.
Traditionally, this maceration was the simple consequence of waiting for ambient yeasts to ignite fermentation, but today many inoculated musts undergo this period of aqueous extraction.

Question 202

Describe the cold soaking process

Answer 202

Cold soak, a pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial SO2 additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide. Proponents may cold soak grapes for nearly a week before fermentation.

Question 203

Does fermentation and maceration happen at the same time during red wine making?

Answer 203

Yes, fermentation and maceration occur in tandem for red wines.

Question 204

What are grape skins left in the must during fermentation?

Answer 204

Grape skins are always included in red wine fermentation, as the winemaker hopes to extract the phenolics contained within grape skins—tannin, color compounds (anthocyanins) and flavor compounds—with the help of heat and alcohol.

Question 205

What creates the cap (chapeau) of grape solids (pomace) during red wine making?

Answer 205

As red wine ferments, a cap (chapeau) of grape solids (pomace) develops on the surface of the must, pushed up by the action of CO2.

Question 206

What happens if the cap is left unmanaged during red wine making?

Answer 206

without intervention, the cap will dry out, solidify and prevent extraction.

Question 207

pigeage

Answer 207

One traditional method of submerging and breaking up the cap is pigeage, or punching down.

Question 208

How can pigeage be preformed?

Answer 208

Pigeage may be performed manually—by workers using poles, paddles, or even their own feet—or mechanically.

Question 209

Besides pigeage, what is the alternate method of cap management?

Answer 209

remontage

Question 210

remontage

Answer 210

In which the fermenting wine is pumped over the top of the cap. Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree.

Question 211

What affect does remontage have?

Answer 211

Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree.

Question 212

How many times can remontage and pigeage be performed?

Answer 212

Both methods may be performed once or several times daily during fermentation.

Question 213

délestage

Answer 213

or rack and return, is a cap management procedure which optimizes contact between must and solids during fermentation. When the cap has risen to the top of the tank, fermenting wine is taken from a bottom valve to a separate receiving vessel. The remaining pomace is allowed to free drain for two or more hours. The wine is then gently pumped back over the top of the cap, using a low pressure pump or sprinkler system. This procedure, usually conducted once or twice during fermentation, is designed to ensure optimum diffusion of tannins and pigments from the fruit into the wine

Question 214

vin de goutte

Answer 214

free-run wine

Question 215

What happens after fermentation and any post-fermentation maceration?

Answer 215

the winemaker will draw the high quality, free-run wine (vin de goutte) from the tank. The remaining pomace is then pressed to yield coarser, tannic press wine (vin de presse). A small proportion of press wine may be blended in to a top cuvée for structure, or it may be entirely reserved for lesser wines.

Question 216

vin de presse

Answer 216

tannic press wine

Question 217

The traditional basket press relies on _______ to press the pomace.

Answer 217

vertical pressure

Question 218

The modern pneumatic bladder press exerts gentle pressure on the grapes by means of its _________.

Answer 218

inflation with air.

Question 219

élevage

Answer 219

maturation period

Question 220

soutirage

Answer 220

Racking

Question 221

What occurs during the racking, or soutirage, phase?

Answer 221

It is the movement of wine from one vessel to another, providing aeration and clarification as the wine is removed from its lees, or sediment.

Question 222

When does malolactic fermentation typically occur in wine-making?

Answer 222

Malolactic fermentation may occur quickly at the end of fermentation or slowly during maturation.

Question 223

sans soufre

Answer 223

without sulfur

Question 224

Is SO2 (Sulfur dioxide) sometimes added to wine? If so, why?

Answer 224

Yes, SO2 is often added during maturation, or just before bottling—an addition that is anathema to advocates of sans soufre (“without sulfur”), a newer doctrine of extreme natural winemaking.

Question 225

Prior to bottling, the wines will be racked a final time, and may be fined or filtered. Why would this occur?

Answer 225

Both processes ensure greater clarification in the finished wine, and filtration promotes stability in the bottle.

Question 226

collage

Answer 226

fining

Question 227

Why would a winemaker use bentonite, casein, isinglass, gelatin, and egg white?

Answer 227

For fining

Question 228

What do fining agents remove?

Answer 228

precipitate solids out of the wine

Question 229

casein

Answer 229

a milk protein used as a fining agent

Question 230

isinglass

Answer 230

a material obtained from sturgeon bladders that is used as a fining agent.

Question 231

Bentonite

Answer 231

a type of clay that is used as a fining agent

Question 232

Filtration

Answer 232

Is a more invasive and expensive process for the fining process, is often accomplished through the use of pads or a membrane with microscopic openings.

Question 233

Many critics charge that fining and especially _______ strip the wine of character, and a growing number of winemakers are proclaiming their aversion to either method.

Answer 233

filtration

Question 234

How are white wine grapes handled differently than red wine grapes before fermentation?

Answer 234

White wine grapes are crushed and pressed prior to fermentation.

Question 235

Can white grapes see skin contact? If so, when would this take place?

Answer 235

Yes, white grapes may see some extended skin contact, usually measured in hours rather than days, between crushing and pressing

Question 236

What benefits come from extended skin contact for white wine making?

Answer 236

This maceration enables the extraction of aromatic compounds but may lead to excessive tannin and bitterness in the final wine if unchecked.

Question 237

débourbage

Answer 237

settle

Question 238

After ________, the juice is allowed to settle (débourbage).

Answer 238

pressing

Question 239

What does settling, or debourbage, do after the pressing phase for white wine?

Answer 239

This process allows the juice to be racked off suspended solids and clarified prior to fermentation.

Question 240

Prior to fermentation, what are the major concerns during the pressing and settling process (debourbage) for white wine making?

Answer 240

warm temperatures and oxygen are the enemy

Question 241

What actions must a winemaker preform to combat the concern of warm temperatures and oxygen to the unfermented white wine?

Answer 241

winemakers must keep musts cool and prevent spoilage or premature fermentation with the judicious use of SO2.

Question 242

Is the fermentation temperature different for white wine than red wine?

Answer 242

Yes, fermentation occurs at a cooler temperature for white wines than for reds, and there is no cap, as the grapes have already been pressed.

Question 243

cold stabilization

Answer 243

a process that causes tartrate crystals to precipitate out of the wine at a temperature of approximately 25°F.

Question 244

What happens to white wines that are not cold stablized?

Answer 244

In white wines that are not cold-stabilized, crystals may later form in the bottle.

Question 245

Do light aromatic white wines undergo barrel fermentation?

Answer 245

No, light, aromatic white wines do not often undergo barrel maturation or malolactic fermentation, and will usually be bottled shortly after the conclusion of fermentation.

Question 246

sterilized fresh grape juice in Germany

Answer 246

Süssreserve

Question 247

Are off-dry and sweet white wines often filtered?

Answer 247

Yes, as the sugar content can lead to unexpected refermentation in the bottle.

Question 248

lees

Answer 248

yeast sediment

Question 249

Fermented wine, whether in tank or barrel, may be left in contact with the lees. Why?

Answer 249

in order to encourage malolactic fermentation—lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees—and supplement richness and body in the wines.

Question 250

Does lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees?

Answer 250

Yes (during malolactic fermentation)

Question 251

bâtonnage

Answer 251

French term for the winemaking operation of lees stirring.

Question 252

Why would a winemaker perform batonnage?

Answer 252

Lees stirring is done partly to avoid the development of hydrogen sulfide. Unless a thick layer of lees is stirred, oxygen does not reach the bottom layer and strong enough reducing conditions develop to change any small amounts of sulfur into hydrogen sulfide.

Question 253

How does batonnage affect oak flavor?

Answer 253

Stirring up the lees in the barrel also affects oak flavour, however. If the lees are stirred, they act as an even more effective buffer between the wine and the wood, limiting the extent to which wood tannins and pigments are extracted into the wine. Wines subjected to lees stirring therefore tend to be much paler and less tannic than those whose lees are not stirred.

Question 254

How does batonnage affect the stability of a wine?

Answer 254

Regular lees stirring also stimulates the release of mannoproteins, thereby improving the stability of the wine. Some producers have become more circumspect in their use of this technique in the belief that it makes the wine heavier, and that over-zealous stirring may increase the risk of premature oxidation.

Question 255

What are the 2 basic ways of making rose?

Answer 255

blending and limited skin maceration

Question 256

blended rosé

Answer 256

simply the product of red and white base wines blended together, a technique widely regarded as inferior. Blending is prohibited throughout the EU, but only for wines below the PGI level!

Question 257

Superior method of making rose wine

Answer 257

Limited skin contact: subjecting red grapes to a short period of skin contact prior to fermentation is generally upheld as the superior technique for still rosé winemaking

Question 258

How long would a winemaker leave their rose wine on the skins?

Answer 258

In this method, a winemaker may purposefully craft rosé by leaving the juice in contact with its skins for a period of several hours to several days, depending on the desired extraction of color.

Question 259

“bleed” juice from a maceration

Answer 259

producing rosé as a byproduct of red wine fermentation.

known as the saignée (“bleeding”) method

Question 260

saignée (“bleeding”) method

Answer 260

pink juice is drawn from a vessel to concentrate the remaining must for red wine production, improving its color and structure. Finally, some winemakers may choose not to crush at all, achieving the palest of hues through direct pressing of whole red grapes or clusters.

Question 261

What creates the large variance in color for rose wine?

Answer 261

depending on the technique of production and the length of maceration.

Question 262

Oak, a watertight, lightweight, and malleable wood, became a vessel of choice for wine during the era of ________.

Answer 262

ancient Rome

Question 263

How does oak influence the texture of the wine?

Answer 263

Oak allows gentle, slow oxidation to occur, rounding out and softening the texture of wine.

Question 264

“form of lactones and phenolic aldehydes such as vanillin”

Answer 264

What the use of new oak imparts in wine

Question 265

a barrel becomes neutral, ceasing to contribute flavor and aroma by its ___________ year of use.

Answer 265

fourth to sixth

Question 266

Alternative to buying expensive oak barrels?

Answer 266

The use of oak chips is a cheaper alternative, although they will not provide an oxidative effect.

Question 267

microbullage

Answer 267

Micro-oxygenation

Question 268

an aeration technique in which small amounts of oxygen are allowed to enter a stainless steel tank during either fermentation or maturation of the wine, may be combined with oak chips to approximate the effects of a new barrel at a fraction of the cost.

Answer 268

Micro-oxygenation (microbullage)

Question 269

What determines the flavor profile of an oak barrel?

Answer 269

The flavor imparted by an oak barrel is dependent on the level of toast and the type of wood.

Question 270

French oak barrels, produced from?

Answer 270

Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees

Question 271

Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees

Answer 271

Used for French oak barrel production

Question 272

characterized by tight wood grain developed through slow growth.

Answer 272

French oak barrels (made from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees)

Question 273

Quercus alba

Answer 273

American white oak

Question 274

Faster-growing ______ white oak species

Answer 274

American

Question 275

a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel.

Answer 275

Split technique that is used for French barrel making

Question 276

Why does American oak display more coconut character than French oak?

Answer 276

The sawn method is used, which releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak.

Question 277

American oak is made by the sawn method, and French oak is made by the _______ method.

Answer 277

split

*a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel.

Question 278

In terms of production, what character makes American oak different than French oak? How does that affect its flavor?

Answer 278

American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage. This method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak.

Question 279

How is French oak dried?

Answer 279

French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors

Question 280

How is American oak dried?

Answer 280

American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated. The quality (and subtlety) of American oak is improving, however, and many American coopers now use air-drying techniques.

Question 281

chauffage

Answer 281

warming

*One of the 3 processes of barrel making: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)

Question 282

Name for warming stage in barrel making

Answer 282

chauffage

Question 283

cintrage

Answer 283

Shaping stage of barrel making

*One of the 3 processes of barrel making: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)

Question 284

Name of shaping stage in barrel making.

Answer 284

cintrage

*One of the 3 processes of barrel making: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)

Question 285

bousinage

Answer 285

The toasting process in barrel making.

*One of the 3 processes of barrel making: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)

Question 286

What is the toasting stage called in barrel making?

Answer 286

bousinage

Question 287

responsible for oaky aromas

Answer 287

lactones

Question 288

Increasing the toasting levels to a barrel does raises what in the wine?

Answer 288

level of lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin

Question 289

What flavors replace the lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin aromas when a higher toast level is added to the barrel?

Answer 289

increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas. Light toast promotes the most extraction of wood tannin.

Question 290

What promotes a higher extraction of oak tannin?

Answer 290

Low toast level