Vineyard Establishment Flashcards
What is planting density?
A calculation of the amount of vines in a 1 hectare plot
Planting Density equals the number of rows multiplied by the number of vines per row
What is a hectare?
An area measuring 100m x 100m
10,000 square meters
What is the relationship between quality and high density planting?
High density planting has very little direct correlation to fruit quality, but it does offer increases in total effective leaf surface
What factors determine the balance between a vine’s root system and its canopy?
Vine Vigor
Planting Density
Soil Fertility
Training System
Should planting density increase or decrease in low fertility soils?
Increase
Vine vigor is low in poor soils, so it is best to plant in high densities or, st least, with less room between vines in a row
Why is it important to decrease planting density on soils with high fertility?
The vines will express more vigorous vegetative growth, shooting longer, thicker canes. This can bunch up the area between vines, clog up the fruiting zone, and make vineyard management impossible.
Even though there is competition among vines, it is not significant enough to reduce the amount of vigor such that high density planting is feasible.
In low water situations, is it better to have high or low planting density?
Low planting density
The vines will need to access as much of the soil’s stored water as possible
When a site is chosen, what is the next choice to be made?
Selecting a cultivar to plant
What are the main criteria for selecting a variety to cultivate?
Quality of the variety
The rate at which the variety completes its vegetative and reproductive cycles
Yield Potential
Resistance to disease
Legislation
Why is the quality of the varietal important to consider when preparing a site for viticulture?
Genetic characteristics are the most dominant factor in predetermining wine style and quality
Climate can affect levels of sugar, acid, pigment, tannin, and flavor intensity
Winemaking can maintain or lower inherent fruit quality
Why is the pace at which a grapevine completes its vegetative and reproductive cycles important for viticulture?
To ensure the grapes progress through their vegetative and reproductive cycles at the selected site with minimal risk of disease or injury
What rationale determines whether the vines will be planted in the cooler or warmer margins of it’s development range?
It is generally argued that the cooler margins of a grapevine’s ripening temperatures are best for preserving delicate aromatic chemicals.
Warmer ranges for a varietal are better suited for yielding quantity over quality.
Why is it important to plant the correct varietal on the first attempt when establishing a viticutural site?
It is expensive and time consuming to replant vines
Head grafting is similarly expensive and labor intensive
What factors make the issue of cultivar selection complex?
The vast number of cultivars usable for wine production. Jancis Robinson in “Wine Grapes” lists almost 1,400 varieties.
Choice of clone
Rootstock decision
A small number of varieties comprise a majority of vineyard plantings around the world. How many varieties? What percentage?
20 cultivars cover 55% of global vineyard area
What can be done to maximize or minimize a vineyard’s exposure to sunlight, especially in cool climates?
Trellis Design
Row Orientation
Canopy Management
What preparations might be done to a vineyard site before planting vines?
Deep Rock Removal
Soil Ripping
Drainage and Irrigation Installation
What factors influence vineyard design?
Slope
Drainage
Planning/Appellation Legislation
What are the goals of vineyard design?
To achieve commercial and quality objectives
To facilitate vineyard operations, whether mechanized or human
To minimize environmental damage
Why might high levels of vineyard mechanization be desirable?
It can keep costs under control, especially in large vineyards and remote vineyards
What vineyard design options are available to minimize soil erosion?
Contour Planting
Terracing
What is Contour Planting? When should it be considered?
Planting across a slope following its elevation lines
It is practical on slopes exceeding 10% (5.7°)
aka Contour Farming, Contour Plowing
What is Hedgerow Planting?
A tactic of increasing biodiversity in a vineyard by planting hedges, flowers, and other vegetation to attract insects and other animals. It is used to improve the ecological quality of a vineyard site.
Why is vineyard biodiversity important?
The allocation of refuges and corridors to animals an help increase the predation of pests that are destructive to the vine.
What is the formula for calculating planting density (in metric)?
The number of vines in a 100 meter row multiplied by the number of rows in a hectare
(100 / number of vines) x (100 / distance between rows)
What relationship does soil fertility have with planting density and trellis choice?
Low fertility soils permit high density planting and simple, small trellises
High fertility soils require more space between vines (lower planting density) and larger trellis systems
What is Soil Potential?
Another term for soil fertility
How does the decision of which cultivar to grow affect planting density?
Some cultivars have more vigorous growth and/or longer internodes, thus requiring more space within the row
What affects the choice of distance between rows of vines?
Avoidance of shading in the fruit zone of adjacent vines
Operating costs of spraying and weed control, and specialized machinery
Cost of buying, preparing, and planting the vines
Choice of trellis design
What is the desired distance between vines in a row?
Any distance that will offer about 15 shoots per meter
How should vine rows be oriented in cooler climates? Why?
North to South
This maximizes sunlight interception on both sides of the vine, providing the most available heat and light
What vineyard practices at be required on North-South oriented vine rows in moderate or warm climates? Why?
Less leaf trimming on the west-facing side of the vine to prevent overheating.
Temperatures in the afternoon are generally warmer than the morning.
How should vine rows be oriented in hotter climates? Why?
East to West
Shadier canopies may be unable to offset the risk of west-facing fruit overheating.
When does it become appropriate to plant vine rows along a contour?
If the slope exceeds 10% (5.7°)
On a slope of a particular aspect
According to soil type
Why is site preparation important?
To optimize the underground vineyard environment. Even though nutrients may be added, preparing the ground ahead of time can ensure healthy vines.
What are the stages of site (soil) preparation?
Soil Disinfection
Subsoil Cultivation
Soil Analysis
Soil Amendment/Fertilization
What is the first step of preparing a site for viticulture?
Remove existing vegetation, large stones, former vines, trees, etc.
Rooted plants should be dug up and burned so as to prevent possible spreading of fungal disease.
How long does it take to clear a potential vineyard site for planting?
Several months, though some producers may leave their fields fallow for up to a year
This pause allows time for the soil to settle
When are small dips in the terrain solved when preparing the vineyard site? How?
As soon as possible by removing the topsoil, leveling the subsoil, and topping it again
How can the risk of soil erosion be minimized prior to planting the vines?
Planting trees or digging ditches above the field
Establishing paths with ditches or surface guttering
Planting along contours
What part of the soil needs to be prepared or amended? Why?
The top one meter
The vine’s roots are found here and must establish deep and strong for favorable and healthy vine growth
What factors in the soil might inhibit root growth?
Soil Compaction
Hardpans
Water logging abuse by these issues
What is a Hardpan?
More or less horizontal subsurface layers of hard clays or carbonates
They can restrict root penetration and encourage waterlogging
What is the optimal rooting depth of a vine in a vineyard?
70cm in vineyards with irrigation
100cm in vineyards without irrigation
What is the goal of appropriate ground preparation?
To optimize water drainage and availability, the supply of nutrients to the vine, and the flow of oxygen into the root system
To reduce threats to vine roots caused by waterlogging and/or inadequate soil aeration
When should posts and support wires for infrastructure (irrigation systems, etc.) be installed?
Prior to planting
What farming technique can be used to add organic material into soil and reduce the risk of soil erosion?
Planting a cover crop.
Allowing a cover crop to grow for a year and then plowing it into the soil adds organic matter
Growing a cover crop around the vines helps reduce erosion
True or False
It is easy to make major changes to the physical properties of a soil before planting.
False
The physical properties of a soil cannot be amended, though its chemical properties are easily influenced
What are the requirements of a good soil for viticulture?
Retention of soil moisture
Drainage
Aeration for root and microbe growth
Friable, stable structure that does not easily compact or disintegrate
These soils are, generally, loams
What types of soils are difficult to chemically ameliorate?
Those which are too salty, too sodic, or too alkaline
Salty soils have high levels of all salts (i.e. Magnesium, Calcium, Carbonate) while sodic soils are only high in Sodium (as a salt or otherwise)
What types of obstacles might exist before planting that should be cleared?
Pre-existing vegetation
Tree roots
Fences and other obstacles that might impede machinery
What risks do dips in the soil pose to vineyards?
They can accumulate water, causing root asphyxiation and making machinery use difficult
What soil pH level is preferred before planting vines? How is this typically achieved?
pH between 5.5 and 8, preferably above 6.5
The addition of calcite (calcium carbonate), magnesite (magnesium carbonate), or dolomite (a mixture of calcite and magnesite)
What mineral can be used to improve soil structure? How does it work?
Gypsum (Calcium Sulfate)
Reduces surface soil dispersion
Minimizes sub-surface soil swelling, improving aeration and drainage
Why is soil disinfection important?
Nematodes carrying viruses, specifically fan-leaf virus, may exist in the soil and are a risk to young vines.
Soil disinfection is generally good practice even if nematode resistant rootstocks are being used
At what depth are hardpans problematic to viticulture? How can they be dealt with prior to planting vines?
The top one meter
They can be broken up by soil ripping
What is soil ripping?
A common technique used to break up hardpans and shallow sub-surface rock layers up to one meter in depth
The goal is to allow water to drain, encourage root growth and root zone depth. It also aids setting up both trellises and pipelines.
After the physical aspects of the soil have been decided, what is the next step before planting vines?
Altering the chemical and biological content of the soil
What is deep ploughing?
Digging into the soil to depths greater than one meter
What is the first stage in testing a soil’s chemistry?
Measuring pH
Which minerals are not very mobile in soil? When should they be applied?
Potassium (K) and Zinc (Zn)
They should be applied before planting
Why is soil pH important for viticulture?
It affects the vine’s uptake of nutrients
How does pH influence the application of fertilizer in a vineyard?
As pH affects nutrient solubility, the application of fertilizer and other organic matter is strongly tied to the level of soil pH.
What level of organic matter is preferred in vineyard soil? How is it achieved?
Above 2%, typically raised through fertilization or by digging in cover crops to improve structure and add humus content
What alternative to chemical disinfection can be employed to kill nematodes at a vineyard site? Where is it appropriate to use?
Leaving the soil fallow for 5-8 years
Only required in vinegrowing areas with a history of viral and nematode problems
True or False
Soil analysis is the preferred way to measure soil nutrition in the vineyard, both before and after planting.
False
Soil analysis may be used before planting to determine how to ameliorate the soil
After planting, the study of the vine’s parts (petiole analysis, etc.) is used to understand soil nutrition
What is liming?
The addition of limestones such as Calcite, Dolomite, or Magnesite
What is Calcite?
A limestone with the chemical composition of Calcium Carbonate
What is Dolomite?
A limestone that is a mixture of Magnesite (Magnesium Carbonate) and Calcite (Calicium Carbonate)
What is Magnesite?
A limestone with the chemical composition of Magnesium Carbonate
What materials other than limestones might be used to increase the pH of a soil? Which of these is preferred?
Marl (preferred)
Oyster Shells
What is Marl?
A natural crumbly mix of clay and limestone. It can be cultured by adding limestone to clay soil.
When should limestone be added to a soil?
If the pH is lower than 5.5
At what depth should limestone be added to a soil? Why?
Liming should take place at 30-40cm or deeper because it takes too long to become active when applied on or near the surface.
Lime is insoluble and thus has little effect on acid soils if placed near the surface.
When should nutrients that become slowly available to the vine be applied to a soil?
Before planting vines
Why should Phosphorus be applied to a soil before the vines are planted?
Phosphorus adsorbs to other soil minerals. It creates a film around other minerals and is not mobile, thus lasting in the soil for long periods of time
What does soil testing measure?
Soil pH
Nutrient levels
Soil structure
Organic Matter
How much organic matter has been cited as added to new vineyard sites?
10 tons per hectare
What is waterlogging? How is it defined?
Waterlogging is the retention of water by a soil in the vine’s root zone.
It is defined by how much water enters a soil and how rapidly it leaves by percolation, evaporation, or transpiration.
Why is waterlogging hurtful to vines?
It deprives the roots of air and increases the vine’s susceptibility to attack by root diseases
What options are available to solve waterlogging issues?
Soil Amelioration
Subsoil Deep Ripping
Ploughing
Ditch Digging
Drainage Pipes
What soil amelioration techniques can improve drainage?
Application of farmyard manure and/or organic matter, sand, grit, and lime
What are the benefits and costs of using ditches for additional drainage?
The cheapest method of artificial drainage, it is easy to create but requires a favorable slope
It is important to maintain and clean the ditches and their outfalls every few years
What types of drainage pipes are used in vineyards? How and when are they installed?
Perforated plastic pipes are more common than clay pipes, but both are used.
They are typically installed following deep ploughing before the vines are planted.
What is mole ploughing? On what soils is it most useful?
A bullet-shaped piece of metal is attached to a vertical blade and dragged through the sub-soil to create a channel.
It is most effective on heavier clay soils lacking rocks
What is terracing? When should it be considered?
The levelling of soil along a slope to create step-like gradations on which the vines will grow.
It is expensive to do because of the retaining walls (typically of grass or stone) needed to keep the soil in place. Terracing is only practical on slopes over 20% (11.3°).
How can vines be planted to maximize machine operation efficiency?
In straight rows or softly curved rows on contours
When are vines typically planted? Why?
Spring
To maximize the cutting’s growth and establish as much growth and root system as possible before winter
What benefits does machine planting offer?
Time and cost saving
Precise, often laser-guided
How is hand planting executed?
Typically along guidance wires extended between the row ends that are marked at the correct spacing intervals.
In soils where the pH has been risen too much (temporarily) by liming, what may happen to young, newly planted vines?
The vines may struggle to establish themselves and become susceptible to magnesium and micronutrient deficiencies
How can young vines be protected against pests?
Wrapping the young vines in plastic sleeves can protect against herbivorous pests (rabbits, deer, etc.)
Placing a mulch such as a black plastic sheet can protect against weeds
What are hazardous to young vines?
Herbivorous pests (rabbits, deer, sheep, etc)
Weeds
Wind
True or False
Irrigation of young vines is generally permitted everywhere, even in the most traditional old world locations
True
Why are weeds hazardous to young vines?
Weeds compete for the same resources (water and nutrients)
What encourages young vines to survive autumn frosts and winter cold? What can be done to help?
Early season growth encourages strong root development and cane maturation.
Supplementary Nitrogen (N) can be applied to the soil to facilitate the vine’s development.
What are the advantages of mulching with a black plastic sheet?
Young plants will not suffer from drought, even in dry summers
There is no weed competition
Soil structure under the row is maintained
Soil temperature increases, thus increasing microbial activity
What are the disadvantages of mulching with a black plastic sheet?
The initial expense of the plastic and equipment to lay it down
Increased frost risk due to rapid development
Weeds may develop at the base of the vine
Plastic may harbor slugs, mice, and snakes
Removal of the plastic is arduous and disposal is difficult
Promotes superficial rooting (roots become restricted to the surface
