Grape Taxonomy, Classification, Propogation, and Selection Flashcards
What is the order of taxonomic classification?
Kingdom Division/Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
What is the full taxonomic classification of the grapevine?
Kingdom: Plantae
(Plants)
Division/Phylum: Angiospermae
(Flowering Plants)
Class: Dicotyledoneae
(Two embryonic seed leaves)
Order: Rhamnales
(Shrubs and trees with inflorescences)
Family: Vitaceae
(Climbing plants)
Genus: Vitis
(Perennial vines and shrubs with tendrils)
Species: Vinifera, Labrusca, etc.
Cultivar: Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, etc.
Clone: 667, 777, MV6, etc.
What is a Species?
A group of organisms possessing common, unique characteristics distinguishable from other species in the same genus.
Which species dominates worldwide grape production? Raisin production? Wine production?
V. Vinifera
What are Cultivars?
Different members of the same species
How many cultivars are there in the V. Vinifera species? How many are used in wine production?
About 10,000
More than 800 are used for wine production
What is a vine clone?
The progeny of a single parent by vegetative propagation that shares an identical genetic makeup
What Kingdom do viticultural grapevines belong to?
Plantae
What Division/Phylum do viticultural grapevines belong to?
Angiospermae
What Class do viticultural grapevines belong to?
Dicotyledoneae
What Order do viticultural grapevines belong to?
Rhamnales
What Family do viticultural grapevines belong to?
Vitaceae
What Genus do viticultural grapevines belong to?
Vitis
What Species do viticultural grapevines belong to?
Vinifera Berlandieri Labrusca Riparia Rupestris Amurensis
What vine species important to wine production are native to Europe?
Vinifera
What vine species important to wine production are native to North America?
Berlandieri
Labrusca
Riparia
Rupestris
What vine species important to wine production are native to Asia?
Amurensis
How did early cultivated vine varieties arise?
By chance crosses and natural genetic mutation
When and where did deliberate grapevine breeding programs begin?
Early 1800s Europe
What became vital to saving Europe’s wine industry?
Grafting of existing vines with North American rootstock
What are the three most phylloxera resistant rootstocks?
V. berlandieri
V. riparia
V. ripestris
Where is V. berlandieri found? Why is its rootstock advantageous? What are its disadvantages?
Found on the limestone soils of the southwest Texas-Mexico border.
Good lime tolerance
Resistant to phylloxera, fungal diseases, and Pierce’s disease
Moderately drought tolerant due to deep root system
Difficult to get cuttings to root
Highly susceptible to waterlogging
Hybridized with V. riparia and V. rupestris to produce lime resistant rootstocks that graft and root easily with different vigor levels
What are the typical commercial uses of V. berlandieri rootstock?
As a hybrid with another Vitis species that does not root as easily, such as V. rupestris or V. riparia.
Where is V. labrusca from? Why is its rootstock advantageous? What are its disadvantages?
Originates in the eastern USA on the sandy soils of the Appalachian Mountains
Tolerant to cold
Resistant to powdery mildew
Not very resistant to phylloxera
Suceptible to Downy Mildew, Black Rot, and Pierce’s Disease
Not often used as a parent for rootstock production
What are the typical commercial uses of V. labrusca?
Its grapes are used to produce jam, jelly, juice, and wines
What is the trademark characteristic of V. labrusca grapes?
Strongly flavored dark berries with a foxy flavor contributed by methyl anthranitrilate. It is generally considered undesirable.
Where is V. riparia from? Why is its rootstock advantageous? What are its disadvantages?
Found across the USA and Canada east of the Rocky Mountains
Known in viticulture as the rootstock ‘Riparia Gloire de Montpellier’ (Europe)
Very resistant to phylloxera and resistant to fungal disease
Resistant to cold down to about -30°C
Low tolerance to lime, drought, and Pierce’s disease
Shallow root system
Its rootstock is often used to control vigor
Where is V. rupestris from? Why is its rootstock advantageous? What are its disadvantages?
Found in the southwestern USA
Known in viticulture as the rootstock ‘Rupestris St. George (du Lot)’ (Europe)
Resistant to phylloxera, downy and powdery mildew
Roots and grafts with ease
Deep rooting and vigorous, good for soils lacking water
Poor lime tolerance
Why are European vines susceptible to phylloxera, downey mildew, and powdery mildew?
They did not evolve alongside them. They are native to the New World.
North American cultivars were bred with European cultivars to create more resistant species. What was the disadvantage?
The foxy characteristic of New World grapes persisted in the hybrids. The European palate did not prefer these wines.
What are the advantages of grafting V. vinifera vines on North American rootstock?
The foxy flavor of North American varietals and vinifera hybrids is avoided
The rootstock offers resistance to pests, diseases, and nutrients
Rootstock can be specifically selected to suit the above-ground cultivar and the climate
It is cheaper, quicker, and more predictable than planting from seeds
What was the major problem with early graftings of pure North American rootstock on V. vinifera vines in the early phylloxera pandemic?
V. Riparia and V. Rupestris have excellent phylloxera resistance but little lime tolerance. Europe is rich in calcareous soils. Lime-induced chlorosis took hold of many vineyards.
What was done to improve lime tolerance in North American rootstock?
Hybridization of rootstock with lime tolerant species.
(V. berlandieri x V. riparia)
5BB Kober
161-49C
SO4
(V. berlandieri x V. rupestris)
110 Richter
140 Ruggeri
(V. vinifera x V. rupestris)
AxR1/ARG1
Describe the AxR1 (ARG1) rootstock and its history.
A hybrid rootstock created by crossing V. vinifera and V. rupestris.
It became widely used during a planting boom in California during the 1980s.
By 1989 the rootstock was declared compromised by phylloxera, requiring vines planted on the rootstock to be replanted and highlighting the dangers of underestimating the pest.
What species offers rootstock that can be used to defend against nematodes? What are their disadvantages?
V. champinii, specifically the Ramsey and Dog Ridge rootstock
These are only suitable against Root Knot Nematodes, not Dagger Nematodes
They are vigorous rootstock
Which rootstocks are hybrids of V. berlandieri and V. riparia?
5BB Kober
161-49C
SO4
Which rootstocks are hybrids of V. berlandieri and V. rupestris?
110 Richter
140 Ruggeri
99 Richter
Which rootstocks are hybrids of V. vinifera and V. rupestris?
AxR1 (ARG1)
Which rootstocks have the greatest lime tolerance?
5BB Kober
41B
161-49C
420A
140 Ruggeri
Fercal
Which rootstocks have excellent phylloxera resistance and very good lime resistance?
99 Richter
5BB Kober
Which rootstocks are resistant to acidic soils?
V. labrusca and V. riparia breeds
Which rootstocks are most resistant to salt?
1616C
1202C
1103P
3309C
Which rootstock is very sensitive to salt?
41B
Which rootstocks are sensitive to drought conditions?
VERY SENSITIVE
V. riparia x V. rupestris hybrids
3309C
101-14
SENSITIVE
V. riparia x V. berlandieri
SO4
5BB Teleki
Which rootstocks are most resistant to drought?
V. rupestris x V. berlandieri
MOST RESISTANT
140 Ruggeri
110 Richter
SECOND MOST
99 Richter
1103 Paulsen
AUSTRALIA
V. champinii x V. riparia
Ramsey
Which rootstocks are considered more vigorous?
V. rupestris hybrids
99 Richter
140 Ruggeri
Which roostocks are considered less vigorous?
V. riparia hybrids
3309 Couderc
101-14
Gloire de Montpellier
What are the goals of managing vine propagation?
To reduce the risk of attack by pathogens
To nurture sought-after traits in the vines
Provide uniformity, reliability, and predictability
How can grapevines be propagated? What is the result of planting in this way? Why is or isn’t this commercially viable?
Planting the seeds of the vine’s grapes. The resulting vine, however, is genetically different from its parent. Similar traits are preferred in a vineyard to ensure the quality of the final product.
Cuttings can be taken from the winter cane before it hardens and planted into the ground. This creates an identical vine that roots into the soil. Cuttings are grafted onto rootstock to ensure defense against phylloxera and other vineyard factors. It is more efficient and larger-scale than seed planting.
What is a Cutting?
A 30-40cm long piece of dormant one year-old canes taken in early winter. They are removed in early winter to ensure the cutting has enough carbohydrates and nutrition to grow new roots and shoots. This is the first step in propagating a vine.
How are cuttings treated after they are removed from the vine?
A hot water treatment of 50°C for 30 minutes or 54°C for 5 minutes are two recognized protocols for inactivating phylloxera, nematodes, flavescence dorée, and Pierce’s disease.
They are then planted the following spring in a nursery with plentiful water supply and a soil that is friable, fertile, well drained, and cleared of phylloxera.
About 12 months after planting in an outdoor nursery, a new cutting can be planted or grafted.
What is Grafting?
The joining of cultivar cuttings (Scions) with rootstocks of other Vitis species.
What is a Scion?
The above-ground, fruiting part of the vine that was once a replanted cutting of one year-old cane.
What method of grafting is standard practice? Why?
Bench grafting.
It can be done by machine and is suitable for mass production.
What is Bench Grafting?
A method of grafting that uses a machine to create an Omega-shaped cut in a chosen rootstock and a matching joint in a Scion. The two are coupled and dipped in paraffin wax to prevent the graft union from drying out.
What conditions are necessary to ensure a graft is successful?
26°C-28°C and 75-80% humidity for two to three weeks before moving to a warm glasshouse
What are the steps for grafting and planting a vine?
Obtain a cutting from the “parent’s” cane and store at 5°C
Conduct a hot water treatment of 50°C for 30 minutes or 54°C for 5 minutes to kill pests and disease
Cut and merge the Scion with the rootstock
Cover the graft in wax to protect it from infection and drying out
Keep at 26°C-28°C and 75-80% humidity for two to three weeks
Move to a warm glasshouse to kick start photosynthesis
Move to a nursery
What method can be used to graft vines in an established vineyard?
Field Grafting
aka Top Grafting or Head Grafting
What is Field Grafting? What are its benefits? When should it be carried out?
The top of a cultivar is cut off for replacement with a different cultivar. This is commonly used to replace cultivars with a new one that is “in vogue.”
In addition to avoiding replanting costs, this method of grafting provides new cultivars with established root systems.
The best time to field graft is in the spring when growth is underway.
What is Chip Budding?
A common method of head grafting that involves inserting a one-bud Scion into a cut made on the side of a trunk.
What is a Nursery?
A vineyard specialized in the complexity of the propagation and grafting processes. They maintain awareness of the identities of their cuttings and clones, as well as the records of treatments and diseases in the vines and vineyard.
How can viticultural selection generally be described?
Choosing a desired trait from identified vines in order to reinforce the desired traits.
What types of viticultural selection are used?
Breeding (Hybrids and Crosses)
Propagating (Mass Selection or Clonal Selection)
What are the criteria for selecting a cultivar?
Climactic Adaptation
Pest, Disease, and Hazard Tolerance
Annual Growth Characteristics
Berry Character
Commercial Traits
What are some factors of a vine’s climactic adaptation that may be desirable in a vineyard?
Cold hardiness
Resistance to drought or heat
Strong berries that do not split in rain near harvest time
What are some factors of a vine’s annual growth characteristics that may be desirable in a vineyard?
Bud fertility
Ease of successful fruit set
Size and number of berries per bunch
Productivity/yield
Vegetative growth pattern that makes mechanization easier
What are some factors of a vine’s berry character that may be desirable in a vineyard?
Acid retention
Ripening at lower sugar levels
Retention of Aromas
Rich phenolics
What are some factors of a vine’s commercial traits that may be desirable in a vineyard?
High yield
High quality
Suitability for mechanization
What is a Hybrid?
The offspring of two animals or plants of different species
What is the only permitted Hybrid in an AOC? Why was it bred?
Baco 22A (V. vinifera x ((V. riparia x V. labrusca)))
It is a hybrid of Folle Blanche and Noah, bred to resist black rot.
Armagnac AOC is the only zone to permit use of this hybrid.
What is a Direct Producer?
A vine hybrid created without grafting. It possesses qualities of both parents. The wines produced from these vines are generally considered unattractive.
What major factors drive the consideration of using Direct Producers?
Cold hardiness
Non-wine commercial applications
What are most hybrids used for in the 21st century?
Rootstocks for V. vinifera
What are some important hybrid cultivars?
Concord
Vidal
Saperavi Severny
Seyval Blanc
Black Hamburg
Clinton
What is the difference between a hybrid and a crossing?
Hybrids are the offspring of two parents from different species.
Crossings are the offspring of two parents from the same species.
What is a Crossing?
The offspring of two animals or plants of the same species.
In viticulture, this typically means breeding two vinifera species to produce a third.
Crossings between the same cultivar do not produce the same cultivar
(Riesling x Riesling does not equal Riesling).
Which famous crossing was produced in 1882? Who developed it and what was the parent cultivar?
Müller-Thurgau
Dr. Hermann Müller
(Riesling x Madeleine Royale)
What is Mass Selection?
The selection of a vineyard’s best performing vines from which cuttings are to be taken.
This requires an extensive understanding of the individual vine’s behavior over the growing seasons.
What is a Clone?
The basis of modern viticulture, an offspring of a single parent propagated vegetatively by layering or by cuttings.
They are a sub-set of the cultivar, chosen for particular traits and/or the absence of other traits.
Choosing the correct vine to clone requires an extensive understanding of the individual vine’s behavior over the growing seasons.
What is Layering?
Bending the shoot of a vine toward the ground so as to establish a second root system. After the shoot has rooted itself, the connection to the first plant is cut and a clone of the parent plant is created.
What is the disadvantage of layering V. vinifera compared to grafting V. vinifera?
The layered vine will be susceptible to phylloxera as it does not possess resistant rootstock.
What is the difference between breeding and propagating?
Breeding involves two parents providing genetic material to create a third, unique creature. Hybridization and Crossing are examples of breeding.
Propagating takes genetic material from one parent in order to replicate it. Cutting and Layering are examples of propagation/cloning.
True or False
Every propagated vine is genetically identical.
True
They can be traced back to a single vine via cutting and layering operations.
HOWEVER, genetic mutation may occur over time to produce different characteristics in the vine.
Where and when did the process of cloning begin?
Germany in the latter 19th century.
Later, France in the 1950s.
How are clonal cuttings treated before entering into trials?
Screened for viruses and treated via thermotherapy if necessary.
What are some factors that may affect a clone’s trait expression?
Vineyard management techniques
Soil type
Climate
Rootstock
Training system
What are the arguments in favor of planting a vineyard with a single clonal variety?
Reliable yield and quality
Uniform vine maintenance
What are the arguments against planting a vineyard with a single clonal variety?
Increased vulnerability to pathogen attack
Uniformity of wine flavors
The pool of genetic resources is reduced
Describe genetic engineering.
The modification of an organism by inserting, altering, or removing a gene.
Inserted genetic material may come from a different, unrelated organism from the original, either plant or animal.
Research on vines is ongoing though genetically modified yeast are commercially available.
What is the benefit of genetically engineering grapevines?
It is a quicker method of producing new varieties than existing techniques (which can take decades).
What characteristics is current genetic engineering research looking into?
Mildew and virus resistance
Berry color development
Name one genetically modified yeast that is commercially available and describe its advantage.
ML01 is able to carry out malolactic and alcoholic fermentation simultaneously. This avoids some of the complex risks involved in separate alcoholic and malolactic processes.
What is a hurdle to the use of widespread genetic engineering?
Consumer resistance in some geographies.
Where is it believed that the original cultivated vines were first selected?
Transcaucasia
The area defined by the borders of Russia (to the North), Iran & Turkey (to the South), the Caspian Sea (to the East), and the Black sea (to the west)
Why were the first vines cultivated?
The vines had functional hermaphroditic flowers, offering better yields
How did so many V. vinifera cultivars develop?
The vines were spread from Transcaucasia throughout the Mediterranean basin and crossed with local vines
What three key moments were important to the history of grapevine hybridization?
Settlers appearing in the New World and wanting to drink wine that wasn’t harsh, foxy, or herbaceous
The phylloxera pandemic necessitating a need for rootstocks that were tolerant of lime and resistant to the pest
Mildew spreading across European vineyards, necessitating the planting of resistant cultivars with desirable flavor qualities
Where do hybrids continue to play a significant role in grape production? Where were they banned?
In the Eastern USA they are still widely used and valued for their cold resistance.
Germany continues to experiment with and plant hybrids. Regent is the sixth most planted varietal in Germany.
In France, hybrids were widely used until the 1950s when a combination of national attitude and overproduction saw them generally banned.
Where are some important research facilities for the hybridization of grapes?
New York State Agricultural Research Station, USA
(Cornell AgriTech)
Institute for Grapevine Breeding Geilweilerhof, Germany
Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute, Germany
Institut for Viticulture Freiburg, Germany
What are some important crossed cultivars?
Müller-Thurgau
Alicante Bouschet
Scheurebe
Kerner
Reichensteiner
What is Petit Bouchet?
A red fleshed grape produced be crossing Aramon with the variety Teinturier. It was developed by Louis Bouschet.
(Aramon x Teinturier)
What is Alicante Bouschet?
A red fleshed grape produced by crossing Petit Bouschet with Garnacha. It was developed by Henri Bouschet, the son of Louis Bouschet.
(Garnacha x ((Aramon x Teinturier)))
When was Clonal Selection first carried out? Which countries practice it?
In 1876 by Gustav Froelich on Silvaner vines.
Clonal Selection was almost exclusive a German practice until the 1950s when it became widespread.
How do growers who don’t use nurseries propagate their vines?
Mass selection (common)
Layering (rare)
In what situations in layering still used in vineyards?
Where phylloxera poses no risk to the vines.
V. berlandieri and V. rotundifolia have difficulty rooting from cuttings
Old vineyards in Argentina
Bollinger’s “Veilles Vignes Françaises” in Champagne
What is needed for a young grafted cutting to grow successfully? Why?
Water
Its leaves grow faster than the roots
Heat
15°C-25°C is ideal with the heat coming from below to stimulate root development
Loose, well drained soil
It should have good aeration, water holding capacity, drainage, and protection from weevils
What is Cleft Grafting?
A less common method of field grafting that involves decapitating most of the vine just above the graft union with the rootstock. A vertical split is then made in what is left of the trunk and new canes are inserted.
This method works well on young vines in warm climates, but care of the vine after the graft is very important.
What are the two subdivisions of V. vinifera?
V. vinifera sativa
The domesticated grapevine selected to be hermaphroditic with (usually) good fruit set and relatively large fruit
V. vinifera silvestris
Wild European vines that are not usually hermaphroditic, are the ancestors of modern vines, and have mostly been wiped out by phylloxera
What species of grapevine survived the quaternary ice age in Europe?
V. vinifera
