Soil and Water Management Flashcards
This deck contains info about soil and water management, such as how to add nutrients into the soil and manage water availability. Specific info about vine nutrition and the effects of nutrients can by found in the Trivia: Chemistry of the Vine deck
What are the major positive properties of a good soil?
A loamy texture and good aggregate structure which allow
Free Movement of Water
Free Movement of Air
Free Movement of Root Penetration
Resistance of Soil to Erosion
What is the aim of soil and water management?
To provide, as close as possible, an ideal biological, chemical, and physical environment for healthy root growth to occur so vines can be grown profitably
True or False
The vine’s uptake of nutrients is consistent during the growing season
False
The nutrients a vine needs and the amount it needs of them change during the season
Why is nutrient management important during a growing season?
A vine’s nutritional needs change during the growing season
What is more problematic: nutrient excess or nutrient deficiency?
Nutrient deficiencies are generally worse though either can be an issue
What are some methods of improving soil nutrition?
Fertilizers
Cover Crops
Composts
Mulches
Manures
True or False
An inconsistent supply of nutrients is nutrients is not harmful to a vine, provided the vine receives sufficient nutrition during the growing season
False
Inconsistent soil nutrition creates opportunities for pests and disease to exploit
What soil management technique can be applied to achieve and/or maintain a loam texture?
None
What soil management technique can be applied to achieve and/or maintain a stable crumb structure?
Adding organic matter
Lack of disturbance
Weed control
What soil management technique can be applied to achieve and/or maintain sufficient water?
Irrigation
Improve soil structure
Weed control
What soil management technique can be applied to achieve and/or maintain good drainage and aeration?
Drainage systems
Deep cultivation
Weed control
What soil management technique can be applied to achieve and/or maintain a high level of microbial and macrobial activity?
Drainage systems
Good soil structure prior to planting
Control soil compaction
Weed control
What soil management technique can be applied to achieve and/or maintain a pH between 6 and 7.5
pH correction
Lime applications
What soil management technique can be applied to achieve and/or maintain sufficient nutrition?
Adding organic matter or chemical fertilizers
Weed control
What soil management technique can be applied to achieve and/or maintain sufficient soil depth and volume?
Applying fertilizer and/or manure
Weed control
Drainage
How are nutrients lost from the soil?
Uptake by the vine
Removal of crop
Leaching
Erosion
Rain
How are nutrients added to the soil?
Return of leaves and pruning waste
Nitrogen fixation from the air
What concerns would a grower have regarding soil fertility and the application of fertilizers?
The complexity of calculating soil fertility losses and gains
The influence of rootstock
Quality versus quantity
Which elements are essential for vine growth and performance
Which fertilizers should be applied and when they should be applied
What are macronutrients?
Nutrients that appear in the highest proportions in the grapevine, each between .2% and 3% of a vine’s dry weight.
What are micronutrients?
Nutrients that appear in smaller amounts in the grapevine.
What do nutrient deficiencies affect?
Vine Health
Vine Growth
Yield
Quality
True or False
Specific growth restrictions or alterations in leaf color can be affected by nutrient deficiency
True
Chlorosis, for example, is a yellowing of the leaves caused by iron, nitrogen, magnesium, and/or sulfur deficiency
How does most Nitrogen appear naturally in soils?
Through organic matter
In vineyards, especially “bare soil” vineyards, how does Nitrogen enter the soil?
Through chemical fertilizers or legume (bean, clover, peas, lucerne) cultivation, which is in turn broken down by micro-organisms.
In what climates is Nitrogen deficiency in the berry most likely to occur? Why?
Warmer climates
Nitrogen presence in the vine is tied to photosynthesis, which occurs at lower rates as temperature gets too high for the vine to manage
How can Calcium be added to a soil?
In the form of Calcium Carbonate, which also affects soil pH
How can Manganese deficiency be corrected?
By spraying with manganese sulfate, an easy and common task
How can Molybdenum deficiency be corrected?
By spraying with molybdenum
How can Copper deficiency be corrected?
Some fungicidal sprays (Bordeaux Mixture) contain copper, making toxicity more of a concern in vineyards with a history of spraying
How can Sulfur deficiency be corrected?
Through the use of sulfur applications, though such a soil condition is rare due to sprays that control powdery mildew
How can Iron deficiency be corrected?
A carefully applied foliar spray
Lime-resistant rootstock are another option
How can Zinc deficiency be corrected?
A foliar spray applied before flowering
When is soil analysis used to determine the nutrient availability of a soil?
Typically before establishment, but it should be repeated every two to four years to show vineyard performance
Aside from soil analysis, how can nutrient deficiency be identified?
By petiole (leaf stem) and leaf analyses
These are complementary and offer broad identification of nutrient deficiencies, though petiole analysis is more common due to the petiole’s responsiveness to change
What is the source of visual identification of nutrient deficiency in a soil?
Vine leaf color
Before initiating a fertilization program to correct poor vine performance, what should be done in the vineyard?
Eliminating pests, diseases, or irrigation issues that may be disrupting the vine.
Which nutrient pairs are important to balance in the soil?
Magnesium (Mg) and Potassium (K)
Nitrogen (N) and Potassium (K)
Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe)
True or False
Chemical fertilizer should be applied to a soil when planting new vines
True
The additional nutrition helps to give the young plants a good start
What minerals typically comprise a pre-planting fertilizer application? Why?
Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), and Magnesium (Mg)
These are slow-migrating minerals
If needed, when should Nitrogen (N) be added to a vineyard? When shouldn’t it be added?
Nitrogen should be added in the spring when established vines may require more Nitrogen than is available in the soil to shoot vegetation and flower.
Nitrogen should not be added to soil when planting new vines as it is highly mobile and can create a high level of mineralization of organic matter.
If needed, when should Potassium (K) and Phosphorus (P) be added to a vineyard?
In the autumn (spring for light soils)
What is the disadvantage of petiole and leaf analysis compared to soil analysis?
Petiole and leaf analysis will show that there is a nutrient deficiency in the soil, but it can not inform how much of the nutrient is available nor how much fertilizer should be applied. Soil analysis offers this detail.
What is fertigation?
Fertilizer administration through irrigation lines, typically by drip irrigation
How are macronutrients often applied to a vineyard?
To the soil surface or the subsoil
How are micronutrients often applied to a vineyard?
Through a foliar spray
What are synthetic/inorganic fertilizers?
Fertilizers manufactured from minerals and by artificial means. They often come as powders, granules, or crystals and are typically available in single-nutrient forms.
What are Straight Fertilizers? What are their advantages and disadvantages?
A fertilizer that contains only one nutrient. Since vines are typically only deficient in one nutrient at a time in the vineyard, the application of straight fertilizers can be precisely measured and don’t risk affecting other nutrients.
Straight Fertilizers are more expensive than organic fertilizers.
What are Compound Fertilizers? What are their advantages and disadvantages?
A fertilizer that contains two or more nutrients. These are more expensive than straight fertilizers and the balance of a vineyard may be easier to disrupt, but labor costs can be reduced if multiple nutrients in the soil are deficient.
What is the risk of applying micronutrients too close to harvest?
Micronutrients are applied as foliar sprays. If the micronutrients are delivered too close to harvest, the residue of the spray may be present on the grape bunches when delivered to the winery.
What are organic fertilizers?
Fertilizers derived from plant or animal residue, either fresh or composted.
What are the advantages of using organic fertilizers?
They are inexpensive (sometimes free)
They improve soil structure, friability, and aeration
They encourage soil organisms
What are the disadvantages of using organic fertilizers?
They need to be worked into the soil for maximum effect
The release of nutrients is not timed and requires soil micro-organisms
They are bulky and expensive to transport and spread
It is challenging to time the application of organic fertilizers
What are a grower’s ground cover options?
Cover Crops
Mulches
Composts and Animal Manures
What are cover crops?
A deliberately selected range of vegetation planted between the rows of vines (or every other row depending on vineyard conditions) which are important water and soil management tools.
They may be temporary or permanent.
How do cover crops aid vine growth?
Stabilize soils on slopes by limiting water runoff and soil erosion
Enhance organic matter levels and reduce dust levels
Restrict weed growth
Compete for water and nutrients in environments rich with both
Enhance biodiversity
True or False
It is more difficult to move machinery through a vineyard when there is a cover crop.
False
Cover crops reduce the likelihood of compaction and enable tractors to enter vineyards sooner after rain events
What types of crops are typically used for cover? Which is most useful and why?
Legumes and Cereal Crops
Legumes are particularly useful because they fix atmospheric nitrogen via symbiotic, root-nodule Rhizobium bacteria, creating less need for nitrogen fertilizers
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using legumes as cover crops?
Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen to the soil via symbiotic, root nodule Rhizobium bacteria
They have a higher water demand than cereals
What are some legumes that can be used as cover crops?
Clovers
Peas
Beans
Vetches
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using cereals as cover crops?
Cereals require less water than legumes
They do not easily transfer nitrogen to the soil
True or False
Low-growing cover crops are best for use in the vineyard.
True
Low-growing crops do not interfere with photosynthesis by blocking the vine’s foliage.
What are some cereals that can be used as cover crops?
Rye
Oats
Barley
Why is indigenous vegetation, especially perennial grass, recommended for use as a cover crop?
Well-adapted to local conditions
Perennial grass grows primarily during winter, thus providing little competition for vines
Takes long to establish but self-sustaining once it does
What are the disadvantages for using cover crops?
They compete for water and nutrient resources in non-irrigated regions
Increase biodiversity, thereby providing cover for vineyard pests
In some places, an increased frost risk where the cover crop is not plowed in before budburst
In vineyards where water and nutrients may be scarce, how can cover crops be implemented?
Using cover crops temporarily by plowing them into the soil (entirely or in alternate rows) to add nutrients, improve soil structure, and reduce water competition. They are typically planted in Autumn and plowed before budburst.
These are also known as green manures.
Why is biodiversity good for a vineyard?
Earthworms, vital to the soil, prefer biodiverse environments.
The presence of food sources for animals such as wasps, ladybirds, and spiders can reduce the threat of pests
What is mulch composed of?
It is typically partly rotted vegetable matter, such as decaying leaves, shredded cuttings and bark
How are mulches used and what do they do?
Mulches are typically applied to the top of the vineyard soil, usually under the vine.
They prevent soil erosion, deter annual weeds, trap moisture, fertilize the soil,, discourage water runoff, and improve soil structure by enhancing microbe and earthworm activity
What can be used as mulches?
Compost
Animal Manure
Dark Plastic Sheeting
What are the disadvantages of using mulches?
They may harbor pests
They may trap too much soil moisture, increasing vigor
Dark mulches may increase frost risk in some areas
What are the advantages to using dark plastic sheets as mulches?
They are effective weed control, keep moisture in the soil, and increase soil temperature to boost microbial activity
What are the disadvantages to using dark plastic sheets as mulches?
They cost a great deal to purchase, install, remove, and dispose
They may increase frost risk in some areas
What is a compost?
Typically a mixture of organic material, such as decomposed vegetation matured under microbial activity, to be used later as compost or mulch.
What is the benefit of composting?
The material becomes more consistent in physical structure and chemical composition, especially if the material comes from very different sources
Describe well-matured compost.
A ready source of organic matter that is uniformly dark, friable, and softly textured material containing beneficial microbes.
How is compost created?
Organic matter (grape pomace/marc mixed with animal slurry or poultry manure) is piled around two meters high.
At this size, the internal temperature is able to rise to between 55°C and 70°C due to microbial activity decomposing organic matter. This heat also kills weed seeds and some pathogens.
The compost needs to be “turned” to re-introduce oxygen and ensure all of the matter is exposed to the microbial activity.
It takes six months.
When are animal manures typically applied as mulches?
The winter months when the vines are dormant.
What effect does soil compaction have in the vineyard?
It damages soil structure, affecting water drainage, root penetration, and air flow.
True or False
Soil compaction is a predictable risk of operating a vineyard.
True
This is especially so when machinery repeatedly operates along the same tracks
When are soils most at risk of compaction?
When they are wet
How can soil compaction be alleviated?
Plowing through the compaction layer (where possible)
Improving soil structure by adding gypsum, growing cover crops, or increasing organic matter
What are the two types of water management?
Irrigation
(adding water)
Drainage
(subtracting water)
What are natural methods of ensuring drainage in a vineyard?
Planting on a slope
Planting on well-draining soils
When should drainage systems be installed?
Prior to planting the vines
What is irrigation?
The controlled addition of water to the vine-soil complex in order to grow and ripen fruit
Where might irrigation by illegal?
In some appellations of European Union member states, as well as several other regions internationally
How is the volume and timing of irrigation determined?
Vine Growth Stage
Cultivar
Soil Type
Climate and Weather
Desired Yield and Quality
What effect might too much water at the beginning of the growing season have on the vine?
Excessive vegetative vigor that negatively affects fruit quality
What effect does insufficient water between budburst and fruit set have on the vine?
Reduced fruit set, berry size, and inflorescence initiation for the following year
What effect does water stress between flowering and fruit set have on the vine?
Reduced quantity and quality of yield
What is water stress?
Physiological stress experienced by a plant due to lack of available moisture
When might water stress be beneficial to a vine for the purposes of grape production? Why?
Between fruit set and veraison.
It may accentuate fruit quality by encouraging the vine to switch from vegetative growth to fruit development
How does water stress after veraison affect yield?
It is likely to reduce berry size and yield
Severe water stress compromises flavor balance in the berries
What complementary options do growers have to affect water uptake by a vine?
Rootstock selection
Cultivar selection
What factors determine which irrigation techniques (if any) are used?
Soil Type and Texture
Soil Depth
Plowing Practices
Topography
Installation and Maintenance Costs
What effect can excess nutrients have on a vine?
The vine can grow to a size that can’t be sustained by the soil
What effect can the deficiency of a nutrient have on a vine?
A nutrient deficiency may negatively affect the vine’s uptake of other nutrients
What irrigation systems are available?
Flood or Furrow
Sprinklers
Drip Irrigation
What is flood irrigation?
An inefficient system of irrigation that uses a system of levees and weirs to retain water in one section of a vineyard before moving it along to the next. The water comes from a nearby natural source.
What is furrow irrigation?
An inefficient system of irrigation that uses trenches between rows of vines to funnel water. These can follow contour lines, making them more useful on steep terrain than flood irrigation.
What are serious considerations regarding flood/furrow irrigation?
The system uses a lot of water and clean water is becoming an increasingly precious resource
Soil erosion and run-off are risks
Weed growth near the vine’s is encouraged
What is sprinkler irrigation?
The use of sprinklers - typically 25-35 per hectare - to irrigate a vineyard
Name the types of sprinkler irrigation.
Above canopy, where sprinklers are mounted on 2.5m poles
Below canopy
What are the advantages of sprinkler irrigation?
More efficient than flood/furrow irrigation
Can protect against frost
Costs are straight forward and modest
Pesticides and fertilizers can be easily added to the irrigation water
What is the benefit of flood/furrow irrigation?
Cheap to use after initial design/installation
What are the disadvantages of sprinkler irrigation?
May remove recently applied pesticides
May encourage fungal disease
Under canopy sprinklers may get clogged and/or encourage weed growth
What is drip irrigation?
A precision irrigation system that delivers water directly to the vine’s root system via under-vine water lines
What are the advantages of drip irrigation?
Precise application of water during the growing season to maximize yield and/or quality
Causes roots to congregate at the drip site, making fertilization easier
Highly efficient
Can be automated
What are the disadvantages of drip irrigation?
Costly to install and maintain, though worth it if the cost of water is high or its availability low
Emitters can clog if the water is not filtered
Water must be applied frequently as roots will congregate toward the surface
Name two refinements to drip irrigation.
Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI)
Partial Rootzone Drying (PRD)
What is Regulated Deficit Irrigation?
The application and deprivation of water at certain times during the vine’s growth cycle to control water stress and, thus, grape quality.
This is usually applied to black cultivars.
At what time during the vine’s growth cycle is water stress typically induced when using regulated deficit irrigation? Why.
After véraison
Any significant water stress after véraison reduces yield and delays sugar accumulation, resulting in higher color, tannin, and flavor concentration
What is Partial Rootzone Drying?
A means of irrigation where water is applied alternately to one side of a vine, allowing the roots on one side to receive water while the other is drying
What is the advantage of Partial Rootzone Drying?
It is more water efficient. The vine is trained to use less water for an equal amount of photosynthetic activity
What is the disadvantage of Partial Rootzone Drying?
It is twice as costly as other drip irrigation systems as it relies on two water lines (one on each side of the vine)
