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Question 1

What is the sample of Moray?

Answer 1

Participants were undergraduates and research workers of both sexes. Amount of participants was not given for Experiment 1 but 12 participants took part in the experimental conditions in Experiment 2 and two
groups of 14 participants were used in Experiment 3.

Question 2

What is the sample of Simons & Chabris?

Answer 2

228 undergraduate students who volunteered.

Question 3

What is the background of Grant?

Answer 3

Previous research such as Goddern & Baddley’s study into deepsea divers suggested that memory is context dependent, meaning that individuals will recall more information if the environment they learn and study the content is the same as where they retrieve it

Question 4

What is the background of Moray?

Answer 4

Previous research by Cherry (1953) investigated the “cocktail party phenomenon”. Cherry found that those who shadowed a message in one ear, were unaware of the content of the message in the other ear.

Question 5

What is the procedure of Grant?

Answer 5

Each experimenter ran one participant for each of the four conditions and an additional participant for one of the conditions as assigned by the instructor. The participants were then instructed to read an article about psychoimmunology as if they were reading for a class project. They were also informed that their comprehension would be tested with both a short-answer test and a multiple-choice test. The participants were allowed to highlight and underline the article as they read. All the participants wore headphones while they read. Those in the silent condition were told they would not hear anything over the headphones whilst those in the noisy condition were told they would hear moderately loud background noise taht they were told to ignore. (The cassettes for the noisy condition were exact copies made from a master tape
of background noise recorded during lunchtime in a university cafeteria). There was a break for approximately 2 minutes before the participants were given the short-answer test, followed by the multiple-choice test in either the silent or noisy condition

Question 6

What is the findings of Simons & Chabris?

Answer 6

• Out of all 192 participants across all conditions, 54% noticed the unexpected event and 46% failed to notice the unexpected event
• More participants noticed the unexpected event in the Opaque condition (67%) than the Transparent condition (42%).
• More participants noticed the unexpected event in the Easy (64%) than the Hard (45%) condition
• The Umbrella Woman was noticed more often than the Gorilla overall (65% vs 44%)

Question 7

What is the sample of Loftus & Palmer?

Answer 7

The sample in experiment 1 consisted of 45 undergraduate psychology students from the University of Washington.

The sample in experiment 2 consisted of 150 undergraduate psychology students from the University of Washington.

Both samples in the study used opportunity sampling. The participants were Elizabeth Loftus’ students from the University of Washington.

Question 8

What is the method of Grant?

Answer 8

This was a laboratory experiment using an independent measures design. The independent variables were:
* whether the participant read the two page article under silent or noisy conditions
* whether the participant was tested under matching or mismatching conditions.
The dependent variable was the participant’s performance on a multiple choice and short-answer recall test

Question 9

What is the aim of Moray?

Answer 9

.The first experiment in this study aimed to test Cherry’s findings about dichotic listening, while experiments 2 and 3 aimed to investigate other factors that can affect attention in dichotic listening

Question 10

What is the procedure of Moray?

Answer 10

In Experiment 1, a short list of simple words was repeatedly presented to one of the participant’s ears whilst they shadowed a prose message presented to the other ear. The word list was repeated 35 times. The participant was then asked to report all they could of the content of the rejected message.

In Experiment 2, participants shadowed ten short passages. Rejected messages were played in the other ear which were not attended to, Moray wanted to find out of these messages would be heard if it included their name.

In experiment 3, participants were required to shadow one of two simultaneous dichotic messages. Some of the messages contained numbers either in both messages, or in one. One group was told they’d be asked questions about the content of the shadowed message at the end. The other group had to remember as many numbers as they could.

Question 11

What are the assumptions of the Cognitive Area?

Answer 11

Behaviour is influenced by internal mental process such as perception, attention and memory. The mind works in a way similar to a computer, involving input, processing and output.

Question 12

What is the background of Simons & Chabris?

Answer 12

In order for us to detect change, attention is required. Change blindness is where individuals do not detect large changes. Inattentional blindness occurs when attention is diverted to another object or task and observers often fail to perceive an unexpected object.

Question 13

What is the findings of Moray?

Answer 13

Experiment 1 - The mean number of words recognised (out of 7):
* Shadowed message- 4.9
* Rejected message- 1.9
* Similar words from either - 2.6

Experiment 2 -
* When instructions were preceded by name, 20/39 messages were heard
* When instructions were not preceded by name, 4/36 messages were heard. (3 results were rejected as participants started paying attention to the rejected messages).

Experiment 3 - There was no significant difference between the two groups.

Question 14

What is the aim of Simons & Chabris?

Answer 14

To investigate inattentional blindness in a complex scene, seeing if people will notice unexpected events if they are told to direct their attention to other aspects of the scene.

Question 15

What is the conclusion of Grant?

Answer 15

Studying and testing in the same environment leads to enhanced performance.

Question 16

What is the method of Loftus & Palmer?

Answer 16

Two laboratory experiments. Both experiments used an independent measures design.

Question 17

What is the method of Simons & Chabris?

Answer 17

Laboratory experiment that used an independent measures design. The IVs were whether the participant took part in:
* The Transparent/Umbrella Woman condition
* The Transparent/Gorilla condition
* The Opaque/Umbrella Woman condition
* The Opaque Gorilla condition
For each of the four displays there were four task conditions:
* White/Easy
* White/Hard
* Black/Easy
* Black/Hard.
The DV was the number of participants in each of the 16 conditions who noticed the unexpected event (Umbrella
Woman or Gorilla).

Question 18

What is the method of Moray?

Answer 18

All tasks were laboratory experiments. Experiment 1 used a repeated measures design, and the
IVs were:
* the dichotic listening test
* the recognition test
The DV was the number of words recognised correctly in the rejected message. Experiment 2 used a repeated measures design, and the IV was whether or not instructions were prefixed by the participant’s name. The DV was the number of instructions that were followed. Experiment 3 used an independent measures design. The IVs were:
* whether numbers were inserted into both messages or only one
* whether participants had to answer questions about the shadowed message at the end of each passage or whether participants only had to remember the numbers. The DV was the amount of numbers remembered.

Question 19

What is the findings of Loftus & Palmer?

Answer 19

Mean speed estimates for each of the five different verbs in Experiment 1:
* Smashed: 40.5 mph
* Collided: 39.3 mph
* Bumped: 38.1 mph
* Hit: 34.0 mph
* Contacted: 31.8 mph

Participants who saw broken glass in Experiment 2:
* Smashed: 16
* Hit: 7
* Control: 6
Participants who did not see broken glass:
* Smashed: 34
* Hit: 43
* Control: 44

Question 20

What is the background of Loftus & Palmer?

Answer 20

The study is based on Barlett’s schema theory, which suggests that memories can be influenced by the previous knowledge of a person. Therefore, Loftus and Palmer wanted to investigate whether our previous knowledge influences our memory, as well as the effects of leading questions on memory.

Question 21

What is the aim of Loftus & Palmer?

Answer 21

To investigate the ways in which memory can be influenced by post-event information.

Question 22

What is the procedure of Loftus & Palmer?

Answer 22

In Experiment 1, all 45 participants were shown the same seven film clips of different traffic accidents which were originally made as part of a driver safety film. After each clip, participants were given a questionnaire which asked them a series of questions about the accident. There was one critical question in the questionnaire: “About how fast were the cars going when they “blank” each other?” The blank was either hit, smashed, collided, bumped or contacted.

In Experiment 2, all 150 participants were shown a one-minute video. During the video there was a 4-second multiple car crash. They were then given a questionnaire which asked them to answer a set of questions about the incident. There was a critical question about speed: One group of 50 participants were asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” – Another group of 50 was asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” – The third group of 50 did not have a question about the speed of the cars. One week later, all participants, without seeing the film again, completed another questionnaire about the accident which contained the further critical question, “Did you see any broken glass – Yes/No?” There had been no broken glass in the original film.

Question 23

What is the aim of Grant?

Answer 23

Grant aimed to show that performance in a memory test
would increase when the test takes place in the same environment in which the material was originally studied (the matching condition)
than when the test occurs in a different environment (mismatching condition).

Question 24

What is the procedure of Simons & Chabris?

Answer 24

Before viewing the video tape, participants were told they would be watching two teams of three players passing basketballs and that they should pay attention to either the team in white or the team in black. They were told to keep either a silent mental count of the total number of passes made by the team (Easy condition) or separate silent mental counts of the number of bounce passes and aerial passes made by the team (Hard condition). After viewing the video tape and performing the monitoring task, participants were immediately asked to write down their count(s) on paper. They were then asked if they noticed anything strange in the video. After questioning, participants were asked if they had previously participated in a similar experiment, heard of such an experiment or heard of
the general phenomenon. If they said “yes” their data were discarded.

Question 25

What are the key themes within the Cognitive Area and name the 2 studies within each theme.

Answer 25

• Memory
• Loftus and Palmer
• Grant
• Attention
• Moray
• Simons and Chabris

Question 26

What is the conclusion of Simons & Chabris?

Answer 26

Events are much less likely to be seen if they are not paid attention to, showing individuals do have inattentional blindness.

Question 27

What is the findings of Grant?

Answer 27

Short Answer/Recall Questions mean score out of 10:
* S-S : 6.7
* S-N : 4.6
* N-S : 5.4
* N-N : 6.2
Multiple Choice/Recognition Questions mean score out of 16:
* S-S : 14.3
* S-N : 12.7
* N-S : 12.7
* N-N : 14.3

Question 28

What is the conclusion of Loftus & Palmer?

Answer 28

Post event information and leading questions can distort memories and may lead to false memories.

Question 29

What is the conclusion of Moray?

Answer 29

When we pay attention to a message from one ear and reject a message from the other ear, almost none of the content of the rejected message is able to get through this block.

Question 30

What is the sample of Grant?

Answer 30

8 psychology students acted as experimenters. Each experimenter recruited five acquaintances to serve as participants. There were 39 participants, ranging in age from 17 to 56 years (mean age: 23.4), 17f, 23m. (1 participant’s results were omitted from the analyses as they scored a significantly lower score than anyone else.)