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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Observational Research?

A

A research method in which data is collected by watching participants’ behaviour

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2
Q

Give 2 strengths of observational research.

A
  • Observational research often produces valid results as we can investigate how people actually behave, rather than how they said they would, like in self report methods.
  • Observations can be used when it would be unethical or impractical to manipulate the Independent Variable.
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3
Q

Give 2 weaknesses of observational research.

A
  • Difficult to replicate as the way people act in a certain scenario may not be exactly the same every time.
  • Results may be affected by observer bias, reducing the validity of the results.
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4
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

An observation in which observers collect data by recording the frequency of predetermined behaviours using a coding scheme.

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5
Q

Give 2 strengths of structured observations.

A
  • Produces quantitative data which is easy to analyse and compare between conditions
  • More objective and reduces chance of observer bias
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6
Q

Give 2 weaknesses of structured observations.

A
  • May produce invalid results as the behaviours recorded may not be representative of all behaviours that could occur
  • Produces quantitative data which lacks detail, therefore doesn’t provide detail and reasons for behaviour
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7
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

An observation in which observers collect data by writing down all behaviour that occurs in the observation period

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8
Q

Give 2 strengths of unstructured observations.

A
  • Collects qualitative data which is rich in detail and can explain reasons for behaviour
  • Unlike in structured observations, all behaviours will be recorded, so the results will be more valid
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9
Q

Give a 2 weaknesses of unstructured observations.

A
  • As observers are recording everything that occurs, they may miss certain behaviours, therefore decreasing the reliability of results.
  • Collects qualitative data, which is difficult to analyse and can be subjective, decreasing the validity of conclusions made.
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10
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

An observation carried out in a controlled environment in which extraneous variables can be controlled, for example a laboratory.

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11
Q

Give 2 strengths of controlled observations

A
  • High levels of control over extraneous variables, so causality can be established
  • Can be replicated easily, so they have high external reliability.
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12
Q

Give 2 weaknesses of controlled observations

A
  • Low ecological validity as the environment is highly artificial
  • Participants are more likely to show demand characteristics, decreasing the validity of the results
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13
Q

What is a naturalistic observations?

A

An observation which takes place in the participants’ natural environment

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14
Q

Give 2 strengths of naturalistic observations

A
  • More ecologically valid as the environment is natural.
  • Participants are less likely to show demand characteristics, increasing the validity of the results
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15
Q

Give 2 weaknesses of naturalistic observations

A
  • Low levels of control over extraneous variables, so it is difficult to establish causality
  • Can not be replicated easily, so they have low external reliability.
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16
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

An observation where the observer takes part in the situation they are observing and becomes part of the observed group

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17
Q

Give 2 strengths of participant observations

A
  • Observer can gain a more in-depth understanding of the participants’ behaviour as they are interacting with them
  • The observer will understand the situation that they are observation better because they take part in it themself.
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18
Q

Give 2 weaknesses of participant observations

A
  • Observer will likely have to record behaviours afterwards, and therefore may forget some behaviours, decreasing the reliability of results
  • May lead to observer bias as the researcher is interacting with the participants
  • Usually involves deceiving participants, and therefore is unethical
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19
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

An observation in which the observer doesn’t participate in the situation that they are observing and does not become part of the observed group

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20
Q

Give 2 strengths of non-participant observations

A
  • Less likely to result in observer bias as the researcher does not interact with the participants
  • Observer can record behaviours as they happen, therefore not relying on memory
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21
Q

Give 2 weaknesses of non-participant observations

A
  • It may be difficult to understand behaviour of participants if the observer doesn’t interact with them
  • The observer may not understand the situation they are observing if they do not participate in it
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22
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

An observation in which the participants are not aware that they are being observed

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23
Q

Give a strength of covert observations

A

Reduces the chance of demand characteristics, increasing the validity of results.

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24
Q

Give a weakness of covert observations

A

They are unethical as participants do not give informed consent

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25
Q

What is a overt observation?

A

An observation in which the participants are aware that they are being observed

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26
Q

Give a strength of overt observations

A

They are usually ethical as participants are aware they are being observed and have therefore consented.

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27
Q

Give a weakness of overt observations

A

Results may be affected by demand characteristics as participants know they are being observed

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28
Q

What is time sampling?

A

When observers pick a time interval and only record behaviours that occur at those times.

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29
Q

Give a strength of time sampling

A

Observers are more likely to be able to record behaviours accurately and in detail as they have time to write down what they have observed, meaning what they write down will be valid

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30
Q

Give a weakness of time sampling

A

Any behaviours that occur outside of the time intervals will not be recorded so the results may not be representative of all behaviours, and so are less likely to be valid

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31
Q

What is event sampling?

A

When observers observe all behaviour through the entire length of the observation, recording all events that occur using a coding scheme

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32
Q

Give a strength of event sampling

A

No behaviours will be missed because the observer records behaviour that occurs throughout the whole length of the observation

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33
Q

Give a weakness of event sampling

A

Behaviours that aren’t on the coding scheme won’t be recorded, therefore results may be invalid.

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34
Q

What is inter-rater reliability in observations?

A

A measure of agreement between multiple observers in what they have seen

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35
Q

What is observer bias?

A

When the observer interprets what they see in a way which is influenced by what they expect to see

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36
Q

What is correlational research?

A

Research method which investigates the relationship between two co-variables without the researcher manipulating any of them

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37
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A

As one co-variable increases, the other co-variable also increases

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38
Q

What is a negative correlation?

A

As one co-variable increases, the other co-variable decreases

39
Q

What is no correlation?

A

No significant relationship is found between the co-variables

40
Q

Write a null hypothesis for correlational research

A

There will be no significant correlation between (Variable A) and (Variable B). Any correlation will be due to chance.

41
Q

Write a one-tailed alternate hypothesis for correlational research

A

There will be a significant positive/negative correlation between (Variable A) and (Variable B).

42
Q

Write a two-tailed alternate hypothesis for correlational research

A

There will be a significant correlation between (Variable A) and (Variable B).

43
Q

What correlation co-efficients indicate a strong positive correlation?

A

0.7 , 0.8 , 0.9 , 1

44
Q

What correlation co-efficients indicate a strong negative correlation?

A

-0.7 , -0.8 , -0.9 , -1

45
Q

What correlation co-efficients indicate a moderate positive correlation?

A

0.4 , 0.5 , 0.6

46
Q

What correlation co-efficients indicate a moderate negative correlation?

A

-0.4 , -0.5 , -0.6

47
Q

What correlation co-efficients indicate a weak positive correlation?

A

0.1 , 0.2 , 0.3

48
Q

What correlation co-efficients indicate a weak negative correlation?

A

-0.1 , -0.2 , -0.3

49
Q

What correlation co-efficients indicate no correlation?

A

0

50
Q

Give 2 strengths of correlational research

A
  • Good as preliminary research. We can investigate if there is a link between variables before investigating them further experimentally
  • Useful for investigating variables that would be unethical or impractical to manipulate.
51
Q

Give 2 weaknesses of correlational research.

A
  • Impossible to establish cause and effect as a relationship is established, but it is unclear which variable causes the effect in the other
  • There may be a third variable which is affecting the variables, therefore making the results invalid
52
Q

What is the difference between interviews and questionnaires?

A

In interviews, the questions are asked verbally by an interviewer, whereas in questionnaires, questions are written down

53
Q

Give a strength and a weakness of the self report method

A

Strength:
Is a cheaper, easier method of obtaining data about people’s thoughts and behaviours

Weakness:
Results are often affected by social desirability bias, meaning results may be invalid.

54
Q

Give a strength and a weakness of Questionnaires

A

Strength:
* Easier and cheaper way to collect lots of data as easy to distribute
* Results are less likely to be affected by social desirability bias because there is nobody else present when the participant completes the questionnaire

Weakness:
There is no way for the participants to clarify questions that they don’t fully understand. Therefore, results may be less valid as participants may not have answered how the researcher intended

55
Q

Give a strength and a weakness of Interviews

A

Strength:
Participants can ask interviewer to clarify any questions they don’t understand. This means the results are likely to be more valid as participants are more likely to answer how the research intended
Weakness:
* Much more time consuming as each participants needs to be individually interviewed
* More likely to be affected by social desirability bias because the interviewer is present, so the participant may give untruthful answers in an attempt to make themself appear more socially desirable

56
Q

What are closed questions? Give a strength and a weakness

A

Questions which are answered by the participant choosing from a pre-determined set of answers.
+ Produces quantitative data, which is easy to analyse and compare across conditions
- Lacks detail and doesn’t allow researcher to gain an insight into the reasons for behaviour.

57
Q

What are open questions? Give a strength and a weakness

A

Questions that the participant can answer in any way they choose
+ Provides detail and insight into the reasons for behaviour
- Produces qualitative data, which is difficult to analyse and compare across conditions

58
Q

What is a Likert Scale?

A

Questions in which participants indicate on a scale how much they agree with a statement given

59
Q

What is a Semantic Differential Scale?

A

Questions in which the participants is given a statement, as well as a scale with two contrasting adjectives on the ends. They have to say where on the scale their opinion on the statement lies between the two adjectives.

60
Q

Name the 3 types of Interview and define each

A
  • Structured: Interviewers ask a predetermined list of questions in the same order and in the same way
  • Semi-structured: Interviewers ask a predetermined list of questions but they can deviate from the list and ask follow up questions
  • Unstructured: The topic of the interview is the only thing that is predetermined. The interviewer asks anything they believe will give them useful answers.
61
Q

Give a strength and a weakness of structured interviews

A

+ As the questions are standardised, the research will be more reliable as it can be easily replicated
- The interviewer can’t ask follow up questions, meaning they may not be able to gain a full understanding of the participant’s thoughts and feelings. Therefore, results may lack validity

62
Q

Give a strength and a weakness of unstructured interviews

A

+ As the interviewer is able to ask follow up questions, they can gain more valid data
- Low reliability as the interview can not be replicated as the questions are not standardised

63
Q

What is independent design? Give a strength and a weakness

A

Each participant only takes part in one of the conditions.
+ Order effects will not affect the results
- Differences between conditions may be due to participant variables

64
Q

What is repeated measures design? Give a strength and a weakness

A

Each participant takes place in all of the conditions
+ Participant variables will not affect the results
- Order effects may affect the results

65
Q

How can order effects be reduced?

A

Counterbalancing

66
Q

What is the matched pairs design? Give a strength and a weakness

A

Each participant takes part in one condition, however each participant is
matched according to certain characteristics with another participant in the
other condition.
+ The effect of order effects and participant variables are reduced
- Can be time consuming or difficult to match participants

67
Q

What is a laboratory experiment? Give a strength and a weakness

A

A laboratory experiment is an experiment carried out in a highly controlled environment, such as a laboratory.
+ Researchers can control for extraneous variables and ensure the procedure is
fully standardised and replicable, increasing reliability
- Results may lack ecological validity, as the artificial environment may cause unnatural behaviour from the participants

68
Q

What is a field experiment? Give a strength and a weakness

A

A field experiment is an experiment carried out the participants’ natural setting
+ Results are likely to be high in ecological validity as participants’ behaviour will be more natural
- Researchers have little control over extraneous variables, therefore decreasing reliability

69
Q

What is a quasi experiment? Give a strength and a weakness

A

A quasi experiment is an experiment in which the IV is not directly manipulated by the researcher
+ Useful for conducting research into naturally occurring variables or variables that would be unethical or impractical to manipulate
- Low reliability as the researcher has no control over the IV

70
Q

What are the 4 principles of the BPS code of ethics?

A

Respect, competence, responsibility, integrity

71
Q

Which ethical guidelines form part of the ‘Respect’ principle of the BPS code?

A

Informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality

72
Q

Which ethical guidelines form part of the ‘Responsibility’ principle of the BPS code

A

Protection from Physical and Psychological harm, Debrief

73
Q

Which ethical guideline forms part of the ‘Integrity’ principle of the BPS code

A

Deception

74
Q

Name the 5 non-parametric tests on the specification, what are the conditions for the use of each one, and how should you compare the observed and critical value for each?

A
  • Chi-Squared: Independent Measures Design, Nominal Data. Observed value must be greater than or equal to the critical value for findings to be significant.
  • Mann-Whitney U Test: Independent Measures Design, Interval/Ordinal Data. Observed value must be less than or equal to the critical value for findings to be significant.
  • Binominal Sign Test: Repeated Measures Design, Nominal Data Observed value must be less than or equal to the critical value for findings to be significant.
  • Wilcoxon Test: Repeated Measures Design, Interval/Ordinal Data. Observed value must be less than or equal to the critical value for findings to be significant.
  • Spearman’s Rho: Correlations. Observed value must be greater than or equal to the critical value for findings to be significant.
75
Q

How do you carry out the Chi-Squared statistical test?

A
  • Add one row and one column to the table and total all the rows and columns, also giving you an overall total, which should be equal to the number of individuals in the sample.
  • Calculate expected value for each box in the table. Expected value = (Row Total x Column Total) / Overall Total
  • Carry out the Chi Squared Formula: χ^2 = ∑[(observed value – expected value)
    ^2] / expected value
  • Calculate degrees of freedom: df= (number of rows - 1) x (number of columns - 1). Do not include the rows/columns you added for totals in this
  • Find your calculated df in the Chi squared critical value table, and read to 0.05 unless specified otherwise. This will give you the critical value. If the observed Chi-Squared value is greater than or equal to the critical value, findings are significant.
76
Q

How do you carry out the Mann-Whitney U test?

A
  • Add a ranking column to the table for each condition, and add an extra row labelled “R1” in the first condition and “R2” in the second condition.
  • Rank all of the data points, making sure to rank the data from both conditions together. Add the rankings to the table, and total them up for the R1 and R2 values.
  • Whichever is the smallest value out of R1 and R2 should be used to carry out the formula: U1 = R1or2 - [n1(n1+1)/2]. This will give you your observed value.
  • Use the Mann-Whitney critical value table to find the critical value. N1 is the number of participants in condition 1 and N2 is the number of participants in condition 2. If the observed value is equal to or less than the critical value, findings are significant.
77
Q

How do you carry out the Binomial Sign test?

A
  • Add a column to the table titled “Direction”. In this column, put a plus for yes-no, a minus for no-yes and “ignore” for yes-yes and no-no. The plus and minus can be switched around as long as it is consistent throughout the table.
  • Total the amount of each sign. Your observed value is equal to the frequency of the least frequent sign.
  • N is equal to the number of participants with a flow of direction, so add up how many participants there are who don’t have “Ignore”. Find this number of the critical value table, and read across to 0.05 unless specified otherwise. This will give you your critical value.
  • If the observed value is less than the critical value, findings are significant.
78
Q

How do you carry out the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test?

A
  • Add a column to the table labelled “Difference”. Find the difference between the 2 values.
  • Add another column labelled “Ranked Difference”. Rank the differences, ignoring the positive and negative signs. Ignore any values that are 0.
  • Total the amount of each sign, ignoring any 0s. Which sign is the least frequent, use the values in the table that have this sign.
  • Add the ranks together of the values in the table with the least frequent sign. This is your observed value.
  • Find critical value in Wilcoxon critical value table. N is number od differences, therefore amount of participants excluding any ignored 0 difference values.
  • If the observed value is less than the critical value, it is significant.
79
Q

How do you carry out Spearman’s Rho?

A
  • Rank the values in the first co-variable. Also rank the values in the second co-variable, but ensure to rank the 2 co-variables separately.
  • Create a table with value of co-variable 1, rank of co-variable 1, value of co-variable 2, rank of co-variable 2, difference between ranks and difference squared. Insert all data into the first 4 columns of this table, then calculate the final 2 columns.
  • Add up all of the difference squared values. Carry out Spearman’s Rho formula: r = 1 - (6ΣD^2)/[n(n^2-1)]
  • This will give your observed value, which is also the correlation coefficient
  • Find critical value in Spearman’s Rho critical value table, read from number of pairs, across to 0.05 unless specified otherwise.
  • If the observed value is more than or equal to the critical value, the findings are significant
80
Q

Name 3 measures of Central Tendency

A

Mode, Median, Mean

81
Q

How do you calculate the Mode?

A

Identify what is the most frequently occurring number in the data set

82
Q

How do you calculate the Median?

A

Arrange the numbers from smallest to largest and find the midpoint.

83
Q

How do you calculate the Mean?

A

Add together all numbers in the data set, and divide by how many numbers there are in the data set

84
Q

Give a strength and weakness of using the mode

A
  • Strength: Not skewed by extreme values
  • Weakness: Doesn’t take all the scores in the data set into consideration
85
Q

Give a strength and weakness of using the median

A
  • Strength: Not skewed by extreme values
  • Weakness: Doesn’t take all the scores in the data set into consideration
86
Q

Give a strength and weakness of using the mean

A
  • Strength: Takes all of the scores in the data set into consideration
  • Weakness: Can be skewed by extreme values
87
Q

Name 3 measures of Dispersion

A

Range, Variance, Standard Deviation

88
Q

How do you calculate the Range?

A

Calculate the largest value minus the smallest value

89
Q

How do you calculate the Variance and standard deviation?

A

Subtract the mean from each number in your sample, and square the result of these calculations. Add these numbers together and divide this by how many numbers you have in the sample minus 1. This will give the variance. Square root the variance to find the standard deviation

90
Q

What does the standard deviation show?

A

It is a measure of how dispersed the data is in relation to the mean. A small standard deviation indicates data is clustered tightly around the mean, and a large standard deviation indicates data is more spread out.

91
Q

What are the levels of data and what is the definition of each?

A
  • Nominal - Data that is sorted into categories
  • Ordinal - Data which is on a rating scale
  • Interval - Data with an exact value
92
Q

What are the types of data and what is the definition of each?

A
  • Qualitative - Data which involves in depth descriptions
  • Quantitative - Data which involves numerical values
  • Primary - Data that has been collected directly by the researcher, solely for their research
  • Secondary - Data that the researcher has not collected themself.
93
Q
A

Biology and Psychology (15 decks)

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