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BIOL 204 > Vertebrate Development > Flashcards

Vertebrate Development Flashcards

1
Q

what are the early stages of development in frogs (4)

A
  • cleavage
  • blastula formation
  • gastrulation
  • neurulation
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2
Q

how do all vertebrates start life (2)

A
  • as a single cell, which is a fertilized egg

- as a zygote

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3
Q

development

A
  • when a single cell divides and differentiates into all of the cells which make up many different tissues and organs of an adult organism
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4
Q

what occurs during cleavage in frogs

A
  • the zygote rapidly divides again and again to form the morula
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5
Q

zygote

A
  • fertilized egg
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6
Q

morula

A
  • a solid ball of 16-32 cells
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7
Q

animal pole (3)

A
  • animal pole is located at the top of the egg
  • has a lower concentration of yolk than the vegetal pole
  • cells that divide near the animal pole are smaller than cells near the vegetal pole due to the lack of yolk
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8
Q

vegetal pole (3)

A
  • vegetal pole is located at the bottom of the egg
  • has a higher concentration of yolk than the animal pole
  • cells that divide near the vegetal pole are larger than cells near the animal pole due to the abundance of yolk
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9
Q

how do the size of the cells within the egg and the egg itself change throughout early development (3)

  • egg itself
  • cells within the egg
  • why
A
  • sphere egg stays static in size
  • individual cells get smaller in size
  • this is because there is no time for growth of cells during rapid division that occurs during development
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10
Q

what happens during blastula formation in frogs

A
  • morula continues to divide, forming a hollow ball of cells known as the blastula
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11
Q

blastula

A
  • hollow ball of cells formed during blastula formation
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12
Q

blastocoel (3)

  • defintion (2)
  • function
A
  • hollow space inside the blastula formed during blastula formation
  • lined by undifferentiated/non-specialized cells
  • no specific function, just a step that has to occur during development
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13
Q

what happens during gastrulation in frogs (3)

A
  • major rearrangement of cells in the embryo: cells from the outer surface migrate inward through the blastopore
  • specialization occurs and three embryonic germ layers are established: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
  • gut formation
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14
Q

blastopore

A
  • opening in the blastula outer surface
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15
Q

ectoderm (2)

A
  • “outer skin”

- outer layer of cells

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16
Q

mesoderm (2)

A
  • “middle skin”

- middle layer of cells, sandwiched between the ectoderm and the endoderm

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17
Q

endoderm (2)

A
  • “inner skin”

- most inner layer of cells that line cavities within the egg

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18
Q

what occurs during gut formation of gastrulation in frogs (2)

A
  • a new space forms within the embryo called the archenteron

- this new space completely displaces the blastocoel

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19
Q

archenteron (5)

A
  • “early gut”
  • new space formed within the embryo during gastrulation
  • gives rise to the lumen of the digestive tract
  • this space is lined by endoderm cells
  • completely displaces the blastocoel
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20
Q

notochord (3)

A
  • arises from the medial region of the mesoderm
  • a flexible rod that provides structural support
  • signalling centre that directs cells
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21
Q

what is the fate of the mesoderm in adult vertebrates (4)

A

gives rise to:

  • many regions of the skeleton
  • most muscles
  • the notochord
  • the circulatory system
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22
Q

what is the fate of the ectoderm in adult vertebrates (4)

A

gives rise to

  • the epidermis
  • many skin glands
  • nervous system
  • many sensory organs
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23
Q

what is the fate of the endoderm in adult vertebrates (8)

A

produces:

  • lining of the digestive tract
  • liver, pancreas, gall bladder, digestive glands
  • lungs
  • swim bladders
  • urinary bladder
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24
Q

neural plate ectoderm

A
  • thickened plate of ectoderm cells that lie on the dorsal side of the egg
  • formed in early neurulation/late gastrulation
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25
Q

what happens during neurulation in frogs (3)

A
  • the neural plate ectoderm bends along the dorsal midline forming a medial neural groove surrounded by neural folds on either side
  • the neural folds fuse together to form the hollow neural tube
  • some cells separate from the neural folds to form the neural crest
  • differentiation of the mesoderm into 3 layers
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26
Q

neural crest (3)

  • development
  • function
  • fate
A
  • cells that separate from the neural folds during neurulation
  • most ectoderm cells are organized into large sheets, but neural crest cells can migrate independently through the embryo
  • highly mobile cells will give rise to wide variety of structures in the adult
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27
Q

neural tube (2)

  • development
  • fate
A
  • formed when the neural folds fuse together to form a hollow tube during neurulation
  • gives rise to the central nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord and parts of the eyes
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28
Q

neurocoel (2)

  • development
  • fate
A
  • hollow cavity in the neural tube that is formed during neurulation
  • becomes the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord
29
Q

in folic acid deficiency, the neural folds do not fuse together
- what is most likely to occur in the case of severe deficiency of folic acid? (3)

A
  • neural tube will not be formed properly
  • embryo will not have a functional brain or spinal cord
  • embryo will most likely not survive
30
Q

describe the differentiation of the mesoderm in frogs

A
  • after gastrulation, the mesoderm differentiates into epimere, mesomere, and hypomere
31
Q

epimere mesoderm (3)

A
  • “on top middle skin”: the mesoderm that is located near the dorsal portion of the embryo
  • forms somites in the trunk region
  • further differentiates into dermatome (dermis and connective tissue), myotome (skeletal muscle), and sclerotome (vertebrae and ribs)
32
Q

mesomere mesoderm

A
  • “middle middle skin”: the mesoderm that is located in the mid-section of the embryo
33
Q

hypomere mesoderm (2)

A
  • “bottom middle skin”: mesoderm located near the ventral portion of the embryo
  • solid sheet of hypomere mesoderm splints into two layers: somatic hypomere and splanchnic hypomere
34
Q

coelom (2)

  • development
  • fate
A
  • hollow space that forms between the two hypomere mesoderm layers
  • gives rise to major body cavities of the adult
35
Q

vertebrate egg types (3)

A
  • mesolecithal
  • microlecithal
  • macrolecithal
36
Q

mesolecithal (4)

  • yolk size
  • vertebrate type
  • blastocoel and cell size (2)
A
  • vertebrate egg type with a moderate amount of yolk
  • embryo formed in amphibians
  • large yolk causes blastocoel to be small and unevenly distributed (lies closer to the animal pole where there is less yolk)
  • uneven cell size: larger cells near the vegetal pole where there is more yolk and smaller cells near the animal pole where there is less yolk
37
Q

microlecithal (4)

  • yolk size
  • vertebrate type
  • blastocoel and cell size (2)
A
  • vertebrate egg type with little yolk
  • embryo formed in amphioxus or eutherian mammals
  • due to small egg size, blastocoel takes up even distribution in the blastula
  • more even cell sizes across the blastula
38
Q

macrolecithal (3)

  • yolk size
  • vertebrate type
  • blastocoel and cell size
A
  • vertebrate egg type with large yolk
  • embryo formed in birds and many fish
  • embryo initially develops as a flattened yolk disk sitting on top of the enormous yolk (yolk is not incorporated into the cell)
39
Q

how does cleavage and blastula formation occur in birds (4)

  • cleavage (1)
  • blastula formation (3)
A
  • cleavage is restricted to a small region at the animal pole of the zygote
  • produces a blastodisc
  • cells of blastodisc form two layers: the epiblast and the hypoblast
  • hollow space between two layers forms the blastocoel
40
Q

blastodisc (3)

A
  • flat disc of cells that forms on top of the yolk in bird embryos during cleavage
  • cells of the blastodisk form two layers: the epiblast and the hypoblast
  • the space between these two layers forms the blastocoel
41
Q

epiblast

A
  • the top layer/dorsal layer of the blastodisc
42
Q

hypoblast (3)

A
  • the bottom/ventral layer of the blastodisc
  • hypoblast cells help guide the migration of epiblast cells during gastrulation; act as a scaffold/guide
  • at the end of gastrulation, hypoblast cells are displaced and lost
43
Q

how does gastrulation occur in birds (3)

A
  • primitive streak forms from the anterior to the posterior of the blastodisc
  • migration of epiblasts cells inward through the primitive streak
  • during the migration, there is formation and differentiation of the 3 embryonic germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
44
Q

describe the migration of cells inward through the primitive streak during gastrulation in birds and its connection to the three germ layers (3)

A
  • some epiblast cells come inward and displace the hypoblast cells, eventually forming the endoderm
  • some epiblast cells come inward and fill blastocoel space, eventually forming the mesoderm
  • some epiblast cells remain on the outside dorsal surface, eventually becoming the ectoderm
45
Q

during gastrulation, what embryonic structure in the frog has a similar function to the primitive streak in the chick? (2)

A
  • the blastopore

- cells migrate inward in both the primitive streak and in the blastopore

46
Q

what is one major difference in gastrulation between the chick and the frog?

A
  • in chicks: cells of the hypoblast act as a scaffold to guide migrating cells during gastrulation
  • in frogs: there is no transient structure like the hypoblast to guide the migrating cells
47
Q

neurulation in birds (4)

A
  • neural plate ectoderm bends along midline, sinking ventrally into embryo and forming a neural groove with neural folds on each side
  • neural crest cells separate from neural folds
  • neural folds fuse to form the hollow neural tube
  • occurs in a wave, from anterior to posterior
48
Q

neurocoel (2)

A
  • hollow cavity in neural tube

- becomes ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord

49
Q

post neurulation: development of central nervous system (2)

A
  • after neurulation is complete in the anterior of the embryo, the neural tube in the head region swells and expands to produce the brain
  • posterior to the head, the neural tube gives rise to the spinal cord
50
Q

post neurulation: differentiation of mesoderm into 3 regions (3)

A
  • mesoderm differentiates into: epimere, mesomere, and hypomere
  • epimere mesoderm forms somites in the trunk region
  • somites differentiate into myotome, dermatome, and sclerotome
51
Q

post neurulation: formation of coelom in the chick (3)

A
  • solid sheet of hypomere mesoderm splints into two layers: somatic and splanchnic hypomere
  • creates a space called the coelom
  • cells of mesoderm will be organized into continuous sheets
52
Q

coelom (2)

A
  • space between somatic and splanchnic hypomere

- gives rise to major body cavities in adult

53
Q

post-neurulation events (3)

A
  • development of CNS
  • differentiation of mesoderm into 3 layers
  • formation of coelom in chicks
54
Q

mesenchyme (3)

A
  • loosely associated accumulation of undifferentiated mesodermal cells
  • can easily and independently migrate throughout body
  • can shed from different mesoderm regions at various times during development and gives rise to variety of structures
55
Q

how does formation of the digestive system differ between chick and frog embryos (2)

A
  • frog: during gastrulation, before neurulation

- chick: after neurulation

56
Q

neurulation and gastrulation in birds (2)

A
  • can be occurring at the same time

- neurulation in the anterior regions while gastrulation in the posterior region (posterior to the Hensen’s node)

57
Q

organogenesis (3)

A
  • embryo continues to grow and each embryonic germ layer continues to differentiate
  • interactions between germ layers stimulate tissue and organ formation
  • every cell contains genetic material necessary to become any cell type, but differentiation into specific cell types is a function of gene regulation
58
Q

extra-embryonic membranes (4)

  • membranes (4)
  • production
A
  • amnion
  • chorion
  • allantois
  • yolk sac
  • produced by embryo and grow outward
59
Q

which extra-embryonic membranes do amniotes have

A
  • amnion
  • chorion
  • allantois
60
Q

somatopleure (2)

A
  • extra-embryonic ectoderm and somatic hypomere mesoderm

- form amnion and chorion

61
Q

splanchnopleure (2)

A
  • extra-embryonic endoderm and splanchnic hypomere mesoderm

- form yolk sac and allantois

62
Q

allantois (2)

A
  • sequesters nitrogenous metabolic wastes away from the embryo
  • removes toxic wastes away from fragile embryo to prevent disruption to development
63
Q

yolk sac

A
  • grows ventrally to surround yolk and forms vitelline blood vessels
64
Q

vitelline vessels (2)

A
  • transport nutrients from yolk to the embryo

- simple diffusion is not sufficient enough to support embryo growth

65
Q

chorion (4)

A
  • fuses with outer section of allantois to form chorioallantoic membrane (respiratory membrane)
  • splanchnic hypomere mesoderm within this membrane forms many allantoic vessels
  • vascular membrane used to exchange gases with the environment (through the shell)
  • transports calcium from the shell to the embryo
66
Q

amnion (2)

A
  • water-proof membrane that surrounds embryo in a capsule filled with amniotic fluid
  • protects the embryo
67
Q

how does the amnion protect the embryo (3)

A
  • shock absorption and cushioning
  • prevents fluid loss/desiccation
  • provides support and structure against gravity
68
Q

extra-embryonic membranes in mammals (2)

A
  • chorioallantoic membrane or yolk sac produces the umbilical cord and the embryonic region of the placenta
  • amnion surrounds embryo in a fluid-filled capsule

BIOL 204 (10 decks)

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