Urology AS Flashcards
What are the causes of urinary tract obstruction?
Luminal
Mural
Extramural
What are the luminal causes of urinary tract obstruction?
Stones
Blood Clots
Sloughed papilla
What are mural causes of urinary tract obstruction?
Congenital/acquired stricture
Tumour: renal, ureteric, bladder
Neuromuscular dysfunction
What are the extramural causes of urinary tract obstruction?
Prostatic enlargement
Abdo/pelvic mass/tumour
Retroperitoneal fibrosis.
Medications - anticholingerics, tricyclic, antihistamine,benzos.
Acute retention often postpartum.
What is the acute presentation of an acute upper urinary tract obstruction?
Loin pain –> groin
What is the acute presentation of an acute lower urinary tract obstruction?
Bladder outflow obstruction precedes severe suprapubic pain with distended palpable bladder.
Triad
- Inability to pass urine
- Lower abdo discomfort
- COnsiderable pain or distress.
May be due to previous UTI. Due to urethritis, subsequent urethral oedema.
What is the chronic presentation of upper urinary tract obstruction?
Flank pain/Typically painless. Renal failure (may be polyuric)
- May have palpable distended urinary bladder
- Lower abdo tenderness.
What is the chronic presentation of lower urinary tract obstruction?
Frequency, hesitancy, poor stream, terminal dribbling, overflow incontinence
Distended, palpable bladder ± PR.
Investigation for Urinary Tract Obstruction?
Bloods: FBC, U+E
Urine: Dip, MC+S
Following relief of urinary retention patients undero physiological diuresis. POlyuric state large volumes of salt and water lost.
Imaging:
- US: Hydronephrosis or hydroureter
- Anterograde/retrograde ureterograms (Allow therapeutic drainage)
- Radionucleotide imaging: renal function
- CT/MRI
Management of upper urinary tract obstruction?
Leading to hydronephrosis. Therefore need to relieve obstruction ASAP. The pressure on the system needs to be relieved first.
Nephrostomy
Ureteric stent
Management of lower urinary tract obstruction?
Urethral or suprapubic catheter
- May be large post-obstructive diuresis.
Complications of ureteric stents?
Infection
Haematuria
Trigonal irritation
Encrustation
Rare
- Obstruction
- Ureteric rupture
- Stent migration
What is the aetiology of a urethral stricture ?
Trauma
- Instrumentation
- Pelvic fractures
Infection: e.g gonorrhoea
Chemotherapy
Balanitis xerotica obliterans
Presentation of a urethral stricture?
Hesitancy Strangury Poor stream Terminal dribbling Pis en deux
Examination of urethral stricture?
- PR: Exclude prostatic cause
- Palpate urethra through penis
- Examine meatus
Investigations of urethral stricture?
Decreased flow rate
Increased micturition time
- Ureteroscopy and cystoscopy
- Retrograde Urethrogram
Management of urethral stricture?
Internal urethrotomy
Dilatation
Stent
What is an obstructive uropathy?
Acute retention on a chronic background may go unnoticed for days due to lack of pain.
Se Cr may be up to 1500uM
Renal function should return to normal over days
Some background impairment may remain.
Obstructive uropathy complications?
Hyperkalaemia
Metabolic acidosis
Post-obstructive diuresis
- Kidney produce a lot of urine in the acute phase after relief of obstruction.
- Must keep up with losses to avoid dehydration.
Na and HC3 losing nephropathy
- Diuresis may –> loss of Na and HCO3
- May require replacement with 1.26% NaHCO3
Infection
What are the causes of urinary retention?
Obstruction - Mechanical BPH Urethral stricture Clots, stones Constipation
- Dynamic: increased smooth muscle tone (alpha-adrenergic)
Post-operative pain
Drugs
Neurological
- Interruption of sensory or motor innervation
Pelvic surgery, MS, DM, Spinal Injury/compression
Myogenic
- Over-distension of the bladder (Post-anaesthesia, high ETOH intake)
What are the clinical features of acute urinary retention (AUR)?
Suprapubic tenderness
Palpable bladder
- Dull to percussion
- Can’t get beneath it
Large prostate on PR
- Check anal tone and sacral sensation
<1L drained on catheterisation
What investigations are needed for acute urinary retention?
- Blood: FBC, U+E, PSA (prior to PR)
- Urine: Dip, MC+S
- Imaging:
US: Bladder volume, hydronephrosis
Pelvic XR.
BLadder volume >300 confirms diagnosis.
Management of acute urinary retention?
Conservative
- Analgesia
- Privacy
- Walking
- Running water or hot bath
Catheterise
- Use correct catheter: eg 3-way if clots
- ± STAT gent cover
- Hrly UO + replace: post-obstruction diuresis
- Tamsulosin: decreased risk of recatheterisation after retention
- TWOC after 24-72hrs
May d/c and f/up in OPD
More likely to be successful if predisposing factor and lower residual volume (<1L)
Volume of less than 200 confirms patient dint have AUR. >400 suggest should be in place.
When to use a TURP?
Failed TWOC
Impaired renal function
Elective
Transurethral resection of the prostate.
What is chronic urinary retention (CUR)
Classified into high pressure or low pressure.
High pressure: high detrusor pressure @ end of micturition
Typically bladder outflow obstruction
–> Bilateral hydronephrosis and decreased renal function.
Low pressure (stroke, poor detrusor)
- Low detrusor pressure @ end of micturition
- Large volume retention with very compliant bladder
- Kidney able to excrete urine
- No hydronephrosis so normal renal function.
Presentation of chronic urinary retention?
- Insidious as bladder capacity increased (>1.5L)
- Typically painless
- Overflow incontinence/nocturnal enuresis
- Acute on chronic retention
- Lower abdo mass
- UTI
- Renal failure
Management of urinary retention?
Trial patient with intermittent self-catheterisation first.
High pressure - Catheterise if: renal impairment Pain infection
- Hrly UO + replace: post-obstruction diuresis
- Consider TURP before TWOC.
Low pressure
- Avoid catheterisation if possible
RIsk of introducing infection
Early TURP
- Often do poorly due to poor destrusor function
- Need CISC or permanent catheter.
What are the advantages of suprapubic catheters?
Decreased UTIs Decreased stricture formation TWOC without catheter removal Pt preference: increased comfort. Maintain sexual function.
Disadvantage of suprapubic catheter?
More complex: need skill
Serious complications can occur.
Contra-indication
- Known or suspected bladder carcinoma
- Undiagnosed haematuria
- Previous lower abdo surgery
- -> Adhesion of small bowel to abdo wall.
What are the causes of false haematuria?
Beetroot
Rifampicin
Porphyria
PV Bleed
What are the causes of true haematuria?
General Renal Ureter Bladder Prostate Urethra
What are the causes of general haematuria?
HSP
Bleeding Diathesis
What are the causes of renal haematuria?
Infarct Trauma: inc stones Infection Neoplasm GN Polycystic kidneys
What are the causes of ureter haematuria?
Stone
Tumour
What are the causes of bladder haematuria?
Infection
Stones
Tumour
Exercise
What are the causes of prostate haematuria?
BPH
Prostatitis
Tumour
What are the causes of urethra haematuria?
Infection
Stones
Trauma
Tumour
What are the clinical features of haematuria?
Timing
- Beginning of stream: urethral
- Throughout stream: renal/systemic, bladder
- End of stream: bladder stone, schisto
Painful or painless
Obstructive symptoms
Systemic symptoms: weight loss, appetite
What are the investigations for haematuria?
Bloods: FBC, U+E, Clotting Urine: Dip, MC+S, Cytology Imaging - Renal US - IVU - Flexible cystoscopy + biopsy - CT/MRI - Renal angio
What is peri-aortitis?
Aetiology
- Idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis
- Inflamatory AAAs
- Perianeurysmal RPF
- RPF 2ndry to malignancy: e.g lymphoma
What is idiopathic retroperitoneal fibrosis?
Autoimmune vasculitis
Fibrinoid necrosis of vasa vasorum
Affects aorta and other small/medium sized retroperitoneal vessels.
Ureter are embedded in dense, fibrous tissue ==> bilateral obstruction
What is peri-aortitis associated with?
- Drugs: b-B, bromocriptine, meythsergide, methyldopa
- AI disease: thyroiditis, SLE, ANCA+ vasculitis
- Smoking
- Asbestos
What is the presentation of peri-aortitis?
- Middle-aged male
- Vague loin, back or abdo pain
- Increased BP
- Chronic urinary tract obstruction
Investigations of peri-aortitis?
Blood: Increase U and Cr, Increased ESR/CRP, decreased Hb.
US: Bilateral hydronephrosis + medial ureteric deviation
CT/MRI: Peri-aortic mass
Biopsy: Exclude Ca
Management of peri-aortitis?
Relieve obstruction: retrograde stent placement
Ureterolysis: Dissection of ureters from retroperitoneal tissue.
± immunosuppression.
What is the epidemiology of urolithiasis?
Epidemiology - Lifetime incidence: 15% - Young men Peak age: 20-40yrs Sex: M>F = 3:1
What is the pathophysiology of urolithiasis?
Increased concentration of urinary solute
Decreased urine volume
Urinary stasis
Common anatomical sites of urolithiasis?
- Pelviureteric junction
- Crossing the iliac vessels at the pelvic brim
- Under the vas or uterine artery
- Vesicoureteric junction
What are the types of stones in renal colic?
Mostly Calcium oxalate: 75%
Increased risk in Crohns. Opaque.
Triple phosphate: 15% - Struvite - opaque
- PO4, Mg, NH4 - phosphate
- May form staghorn calculi
- Associated with proteus infection
Urate - radiolucent
- Double if confirmed gout
- Can also be in chemo/cell death high uric acid levels.
Cysteine (radiolucent)
- Associated with Fanconi’s syndrome.
Xanthine
- Radio-lucent
Associated factors for renal colic?
- Dehydration
- Hypercalcaemia: primary HPT, immobilisation
- Increased oxalate excretion: tea, strawberries
- UTIs
- Hyperuricaemia: e.g gout
- Urinary tract abnormalities: e.g bladder diverticulae
- Drugs: Frusemide
Presentation of ureteric colic?
Severe loin pain radiating to the groin
Associated with n/v
Pt cannot lie still
Presentation of bladder or urethral obstruction?
Bladder irritability: frequency, dysuria, haematuria
Strangury: Painful urinary tenesmus
Suprapubic pain radiating –> tip of penis or in labia
Pain and haematuria worse at the end of micturition
Other possible features of urolithiasis?
UTI
Haematuria
Sterile Pyuria
Anuria
Examination of urolithiasis?
Usually no loin tenderness
Haematuria
What to do on urine dip?
Dip + haematuria
MC + S
Bloods on urolithiasis?
FBC, U+E, Ca, PO4, Urate
Imaging of Urolithiasis?
Spiral non-contrast CT-KUB - FIRST LINE.
KUB XR
USS -
IVU
What will you see on XR KUB?
90% of stones radio-opaque
Urate stones are radiolucent, cysteine stones are faint
What will USS show? on urolithiasis
Hydronephrosis
Best means of investigation - US ie from a complicated ureteric stone.
Then IVU - assess the position of obstruction
Antegrade or retrograde pyelography - allows treatment
If suspect renal colic: CT scan.
If you don’t see a stone, you’ll see fat stranding beside the urter.
- unilateral =
Pelvic-ureteric obstruction (congenital or acquired)
Aberrant renal vessels
Calculi
Tumours of renal pelvis
- Bilateral
Stenosis of the urethra Urethral valve Prostatic enlargement Extensive bladder tumour Retro-peritoneal fibrosis
Spiral non-contrast CT-KUB?
99% of stones visible
Gold standard
Kidney, ureters and bladder.
IVU? - when is it used and what does it show?
600x radiation dose of KUB
IV contrast injected and control, immediate and serial films taken until contrast @ level of obstruction.
Abnormal findings
- Failure of flow to the bladder
- Standing column of constrast
- Clubbing of the calyces: back pressure
- Delayed, dense nephrogram: no flow from kidney
CI
- contrast allergy
- Severe asthma
- Metformin
- Pregnancy
Functional scans in investigating urolithiasis?
DMSA: Dimercaptosuccine acid
DTPA: diethylenetriamene penta-acetic acid
MAG-3
Prevention of urolithiasis?
Drink plenty
Treat UTI
decreased oxalate intake: chocolate, tea, strawberries
What is the management of urolithiasis?
Analgesia
- Diclofenac 75mg PO/IM or 100mg PR. Offer IM as first lin.e
- Opiods if NSAIDs CI: e.g pethidine
Fluids: IV if unable to tolerate PO
Abx if infection: e.g cefuroxime 1.5mg IV TDS.
Conservatives: <5mm in lower 1/3 of ureter?
- 90-95% pass spontaneously
Can discharge pt with analgesia - Sieve urine to collect stone for OPD analysis.
If patients present with obstructive. The stone is obstructing the ureter and causing hydronephrosis and she is pyrexial suggesting super-added infection.
Therefore renal decompression via a ureteric stent or percutaneous nephrostomy should be performed.
Medical expulsive therapy (MET)
Indications
- Stone 5-10 mm
- Stone expected to pass
Drugs used for medical expulsive therapy?
RARELY USED: Nifedipine or tamsulosin. Used for small, uncomplicated stones.
± prednisolone
Most pass within 48hr, 80% within 30day.
Active stone removal is indicated when?
- Low likelihood of spontaneous passage e.g >10mm
- persistent obstruction
- Renal insufficiency
- Infection
Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (SWL)
- Stones <20mm in kidney or proximal ureter
- SE: renal injury may –> Increased BP
- CI: pregnancy, AAA, bleeding diathesis
What is ureterorenoscopy (URS) used for?
- Stone >10mm in distal ureter or if SWL failed
- Stone >20mm in renal pelvis
More likely used for pregnant females.Use for patients where SWL is contraindicated.
What is percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PNL)
Stone >20mm in renal pelvis
E.g staghorn calculi: Do DMSA first.
If patient is febrile with renal obstruction?
Surgical emergency
Percutaneous nephrostomy or ureteric stent
IV Abx: e.g cefuroxime 1.5g IV TDS.
Management summary for urolithiasis?
Conservative: stone <5mm in distal ureter
MET: Stone 5-10 mm and expect to pass
Active: Stones >10mm, persistent pain, renal insufficiency
Prevention
- Calcium with fluid and thiazide diuretics - absorb calcium from urine
- Cholestyramine to reduce oxalate secretion
Uric acid stones
- Allopurinol or urinary alkalinisation.
What is the epidemiology of renal cell carcinoma?
90% of renal cancers
Age: 55yrs
Sex: M>F = 2:1
Risk factors of renal cell carcinoma?
Obesity Smoking HTN Dialysis 4% heritable: e.g VHL syndrome
Pathology of renal cell carcinoma?
Adenocarcinoma from proximal renal tubular epithelium
Adenocarcinoma presents with polycythaemia.
- Subtypes
Clear Cell: 70-80% (histology is a complex, septated appearance)
Papillary: 15%
Chromophobe: 5%
Collecting Duct: 1%
Renal transitional cell carcinoma = 7% of all renal tumours.
What is the presentation of renal tumours?
50% incidental finding
Triad: haematuria, loin pain, loin mass.
Systemic: anorexia, malaise, weight loss, PUO
Clot retention
Invasion of L renal vein –> varicocele
Cannonbol mets –> SOB
Stauffer Syndrome = Cholestasis/hepatomegaly
Renal Cell Tumours may have paraneoplastic features?
EPO --> polycythaemia PTHrP --> increased Ca Renin --> HTN ACTH --> Cushing's syndrome Amyloidosis
Spread of renal tumours?
Direct: renal vein
Lymph
Haematogenous: bone, liver, lung.
Investigations for renal tumours?
Blood: polycythaemia, ESR, U+E, ALP, Ca
urine dip: cytology Imaging - CXR: cannonball bets - US: mass - IVU: filling defect - CT/MRI
Robson staging of renal cell carcinoma?
- Confined to kidney
- Involves perinephric fat, but not Garota’s fascia
- Spread into renal vein
- Spread to adjacent/distant organs
Management of renal tumours?
1st line: Surgical
- Radical nephrectomy
- Consider partial if small tumour or 1 kidney
Radio + chemo is resistant to surgery is often first line.
Medical
- reserved for patient with poor prognosis
- Temsirolimus (mTOR inhibitor)
- Alpha-interferon and interleukin-2 have been used to reduce tumour size and treat patients.
- Sorafenib, sunitinib can also be used.
Transitional Cell Carcinoma epidemiology?
2nd commonest renal cancer
Age: 50-80yrs
Sex: M>F = 4:1
Risk factors for TCC?
Smoking
Amine Exposure (rubber industry)
Aniline dye
Cyclophosphamide
Pathology of TCC?
Highly malignant
- In bladder: 50%
- Ureter
- renal pelvis
Can affect renal pelvis in 10%.
Presentation of TCC?
Painless haematuria
Frequency, urgency, dysuria
Urinary Tract Obstruction